Characterisation of RO fouling in an integrated MBR/RO system for wastewater reuse.

Membrane filtration has gradually gained acceptance as the preferred pre-treatment for reverse osmosis (RO). In this paper, an integrated membrane bioreactor (MBR)/RO system for wastewater reuse treating real sewage water has been evaluated and the RO fouling has been characterised. The MBR achieved low values of organic matter, total nitrogen, PO(4)(3-), total organic carbon, turbidity and conductivity. Filtration with two different RO commercial membranes was performed after the MBR pre-treatment and the same average fouling rate (0.08 bar day(-1)) was noted. These results gained from the characterisation of the high quality MBR/RO permeate show its potential for water reuse. Inorganic precipitation appears to be the predominant form of fouling in the RO membranes. Calcium phosphate and alumino-silicates were identified by a scanning electron microscope combined with an energy dispersive X-ray and polysaccharides, amide and aliphatic structures were detected with attenuated total reflection infrared microspectroscopy.

[Profile of the patient who wants to quick smoking seen in the Primary Care and Specialized consultations in Spain]. / Perfil del paciente que quiere dejar de fumar atendido en consultas de Atención Primaria y especializada de España.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the profile of the smoker who wants to stop smoking. Subjects and methods. A cross-sectional, multicenter study was conducted in 1634 smokers attended by General Practitioners and Specialized Physicians in Spain who had expressed their desire to stop smoking when explicitly asked. Sociodemographic data, background of smoking and related consequences were collected. A descriptive statistical analysis was performed. RESULTS: 67.1% of patients were seen by General Practitioners. Mean age +/- standard deviation was 45.6 +/- 12.0 years old and mean age of onset of usual consumption was 20.6 +/- 7.0. Fifty-six percent of the population studied were men. Most (35.2%) had studied beyond high school and 76.4% were active workers. Seventy-one percent had previously tried to stop smoking (2.7+/- 3.0 mean attempts). Out of 39.2% smokers who had participated in some type of smoking cessation treatment the year before, 70.7% were on substitutive therapy with nicotine. At the time of the visit, 80% admitted they could not stop smoking by themselves. CONCLUSIONS: The profile of the smoker seen in Primary Care and Specialized Consultation in Spain who wants to quit smoking corresponds to a male subject in his 40's, with studies beyond high school, actively working who has made more that two previous attempts to stop smoking, mostly with substitutive therapy with nicotine and who currently believes he is not being able to achieve it by himself.