Factors associated with physical violence against pregnant women from São Luís, Maranhão State, Brazil: an approach using structural equation modeling.

The factors associated with physical violence against pregnant women were analyzed in a cross-sectional study of 1,446 pregnant women from a prenatal cohort who were interviewed in 2010 and 2011 in São Luís, Brazil. In the initial model, socioeconomic status occupied the most distal position, determining sociodemographic factors, social support and the behavioral factors that ultimately determined physical violence, which was investigated as a latent variable. Structural equation modeling was used in the analysis. Pregnant women who were from more disadvantaged backgrounds (p = 0.027), did not reside with intimate partners (p = 0.005), had low social support (p < 0.001) and had a high number of lifetime intimate partners (p = 0.001) reported more episodes of physical violence. Low social support was the primary mediator of the effect of socioeconomic status on physical violence. The effect of marital status was mainly mediated by a high number of lifetime intimate partners.

Factors associated with physical violence against pregnant women from São Luís, Maranhão State, Brazil: an approach using structural equation modeling / Fatores associados à agressão física contra gestantes em São Luís, Maranhão, Brasil: uma abordagem com modelagem de equações estruturais / Factores asociados a la agresión física contra embarazadas en São Luís, Maranhão, Brasil: un enfoque con modelos de ecuaciones estructurales

Abstract: The factors associated with physical violence against pregnant women were analyzed in a cross-sectional study of 1,446 pregnant women from a prenatal cohort who were interviewed in 2010 and 2011 in São Luís, Brazil. In the initial model, socioeconomic status occupied the most distal position, determining sociodemographic factors, social support and the behavioral factors that ultimately determined physical violence, which was investigated as a latent variable. Structural equation modeling was used in the analysis. Pregnant women who were from more disadvantaged backgrounds (p = 0.027), did not reside with intimate partners (p = 0.005), had low social support (p < 0.001) and had a high number of lifetime intimate partners (p = 0.001) reported more episodes of physical violence. Low social support was the primary mediator of the effect of socioeconomic status on physical violence. The effect of marital status was mainly mediated by a high number of lifetime intimate partners.

Resumo: Foram analisados fatores associados à agressão física contra gestantes, em um estudo transversal com uma amostra de 1.446 mulheres de uma coorte pré-natal, entrevistadas em 2010 e 2011 em São Luís, Maranhão, Brasil. No modelo inicial, o nível socioeconômico ocupou a posição mais distal, determinando os fatores sociodemográficos, de apoio social e comportamentais, que por vez determinavam a violência física, investigada enquanto variável latente. A análise usou modelagem de equações estruturais. O relato de mais episódios de violência física esteve associado estatisticamente ao nível socioeconômico mais baixo (p = 0,027), não residir com parceiro (p = 0,005), apoio social baixo (p < 0,001) e alto número de parceiros na vida (p = 0,001). Apoio social baixo apareceu como o principal mediador do efeito do nível socioeconômico sobre a violência física. O efeito do estado conjugal foi mediado principalmente pelo número de parceiros na vida.

Resumen: Se analizaron factores asociados a la agresión física contra embarazadas, en un estudio transversal con una muestra de 1.446 mujeres de una cohorte prenatal, entrevistadas en 2010 y 2011 en São Luís, Maranhão, Brasil. En el modelo inicial, el nivel socioeconómico ocupó la posición más distal, determinando los factores sociodemográficos, de apoyo social y comportamentales, que a su vez determinaban la violencia física, investigada como variable latente. El análisis usó modelos de ecuaciones estructurales. El relato de más episodios de violencia física estuvo asociado estadísticamente al nivel socioeconómico más bajo (p = 0,027), no residir con pareja (p = 0,005), apoyo social bajo (p < 0,001) y alto número de parejas en la vida (p = 0,001). El apoyo social bajo apareció como el principal factor del efecto del nivel socioeconómico sobre la violencia física. El efecto del estado conyugal fue medido principalmente por el número de parejas en la vida.

Psychological violence against pregnant women in a prenatal care cohort: rates and associated factors in São Luís, Brazil.

BACKGROUND: Violence against pregnant women has been associated with gestational and perinatal disorders. Psychological violence is the type least investigated and its associated factors have been little studied. The present study was conducted in order to estimate prevalence rates and analyze the factors associated with exclusive and recurrent psychological violence in the municipality of São Luís, Brazil. METHODS: Data regarding 982 pregnant women, aged from 14 to 45 years, interviewed in 2010 and 2011 in a prenatal cohort were used. A self-applied questionnaire was used to screen for violence. Pregnant women submitted to physical and sexual violence were excluded from the analysis of factors associated with exclusive psychological violence. Prevalence ratios and 95% confidence intervals were estimated by a Poisson regression model with a hierarchical approach at three levels. At level 1 of the theoretical-conceptual model, we analyzed demographic and socioeconomic characteristics and variables that express gender inequalities; at level 2, we analyzed social support received by the women, and at level 3, the life experiences of the pregnant women. RESULTS: Prevalence rate of exclusive psychological violence was 41.6% and of recurrent violence was 32.6%. Exclusive psychological violence was associated with pregnant women's age of 14 to 18 years (PR: 1.32 95% CI: 1.04 - 1.70), pregnant women's schooling superior to that of her intimate partner (PR: 1.54 95% CI: 1.09 - 2.16), inadequate social affective support/positive social interaction (PR: 1.34 95% CI: 1.11 - 1.62), use of illicit drugs by the pregnant women (PR: 1.80 95% CI: 1.16 - 2.81) and having had six or more intimate partners in life (PR: 1.52 95% CI: 1.18 - 1.96). Recurrent exclusive psychological violence was associated with inadequate social affective support/positive social interaction (PR: 1.47 95% CI: 1.15 - 1.87), use of illicit drugs by the pregnant women (PR: 2,28 95% CI: 1,40 - 3,71) and having had six or more intimate partners in life (PR: 1.47 95% CI: 1.06 - 2.03). CONCLUSIONS: Psychological violence was a common phenomenon in this population of pregnant women that was associated with gender inequalities, inadequate social support and illicit drug use and should be routinely investigated during prenatal visits at health care services.