Herbivory, plant traits and nectar chemistry interact to affect the community of insect visitors and pollination in common milkweed, Asclepias syriaca.

Herbivory can alter plant fitness directly through changing reproductive allocation and indirectly through changing pollinator identity or behavior. Common milkweed is a plant of conservation concern with an inducible chemical defense that is also an important nectar resource. In this study, we aim to understand how herbivory severity and plant traits, including morphology and nectar chemistry, interact to affect insect visitation and pod production in common milkweed. We conducted pollinator watches on plants with experimentally varied herbivory severity and quantified insect frequency and visit length as a response to nectar chemistry, ramet height, number of inflorescences, number of flowers per inflorescence and percent tissue removed. We also quantified pollinator effectiveness and importance. Increased herbivory severity reduced floral displays, including fewer inflorescences and fewer flowers per inflorescence. A reduced floral display was correlated with reduced sucrose, fructose and glucose and resulted in a reduced number and species richness of insect visitors. Fewer flowers per inflorescence reduced the frequency of bumble bee and fly visitors, which were two important pollinators. Although honeybees, flies, small bees, soldier beetles and bumble bees were equally effective pollinators, only bumble bee frequency was positively correlated with pod production. The differences in pollinator visitation have the potential to create diversifying selection on plant floral traits, many of which are also affected by herbivores. This research demonstrates potentially conflicting selection pressures between native and non-native pollinators as well as non-native herbivores.

Integrating Spectroscopy with Potato Disease Management.

Spectral phenotyping is an efficient method for the nondestructive characterization of plant biochemical and physiological status. We examined the ability of a full range (350 to 2,500 nm) of foliar spectral data to (i) detect Potato virus Y (PVY) and physiological effects of the disease in visually asymptomatic leaves, (ii) classify different strains of PVY, and (iii) identify specific potato cultivars. Across cultivars, foliar spectral profiles of PVY-infected leaves were statistically different (F = 96.1, P ≤ 0.001) from noninfected leaves. Partial least-squares discriminate analysis (PLS-DA) accurately classified leaves as PVY infected (validation κ = 0.73) and the shortwave infrared spectral regions displayed the strongest correlations with infection status. Although spectral profiles of different PVY strains were statistically different (F = 6.4, P ≤ 0.001), PLS-DA did not classify different strains well (validation κ = 0.12). Spectroscopic retrievals revealed that PVY infection decreased photosynthetic capacity and increased leaf lignin content. Spectral profiles of potato cultivars also differed (F = 9.2, P ≤ 0.001); whereas average spectral classification was high (validation κ = 0.76), the accuracy of classification varied among cultivars. Our study expands the current knowledge base by (i) identifying disease presence before the onset of visual symptoms, (ii) providing specific biochemical and physiological responses to disease infection, and (iii) discriminating between multiple cultivars within a single plant species.

Behavioral Responses of Pityophthorus juglandis (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) to Volatiles of Black Walnut and Geosmithia morbida (Ascomycota: Hypocreales: Bionectriaceae), the Causal Agent of Thousand Cankers Disease.

Thousand cankers disease (TCD) is a pest complex formed by the association of the walnut twig beetle (WTB), Pityophthorus juglandis Blackman (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae), with the fungal pathogen Geosmithia morbida Kolarík, Freeland, Utley and Tisserat (Ascomycota: Hypocreales: Bionectriaceae). Current monitoring and detection efforts for WTB rely on a pheromone lure that is effective over a limited distance while plant- and fungal-derived volatiles that may facilitate host location remain poorly understood. In this study, we test the hypothesis that adult beetles are attracted to volatiles of black walnut, Juglans nigra L. (Juglandaceae), and the pathogen, G. morbida. We measured the response of beetles to head-space volatiles collected from leaves and stems of 12 genotypes of black walnut and found genotypic variation in the attractiveness of host trees to adult WTB. Volatile profiles of the most attractive genotypes contained more α-pinene and ß-pinene, and adult beetles were attracted to both of these compounds in olfactometer bioassays. In bioassays, we also demonstrated that adult WTB are attracted to volatiles of G. morbida. These findings suggest that, in addition to the aggregation pheromone, dispersing WTB potentially use host plant and fungal volatiles to locate suitable larval hosts. Finally, we conducted a field experiment to determine the extent to which ethanol, a common attractant for bark beetles, and limonene, a known bark beetle repellent, influence the behavior of adult WTB to pheromone-baited traps. Although ethanol did not increase trap capture, WTB were repelled by limonene, suggesting that this compound could be used to manipulate and manage WTB populations.

Insect herbivory alters impact of atmospheric change on northern temperate forests.

Stimulation of forest productivity by elevated concentrations of CO2 is expected to partially offset continued increases in anthropogenic CO2 emissions. However, multiple factors can impair the capacity of forests to act as carbon sinks; prominent among these are tropospheric O3 and nutrient limitations(1,2). Herbivorous insects also influence carbon and nutrient dynamics in forest ecosystems, yet are often ignored in ecosystem models of forest productivity. Here we assess the effects of elevated levels of CO2 and O3 on insect-mediated canopy damage and organic matter deposition in aspen and birch stands at the Aspen FACE facility in northern Wisconsin, United States. Canopy damage was markedly higher in the elevated CO2 stands, as was the deposition of organic substrates and nitrogen. The opposite trends were apparent in the elevated O3 stands. Using a light-use efficiency model, we show that the negative impacts of herbivorous insects on net primary production more than doubled under elevated concentrations of CO2, but decreased under elevated concentrations of O3. We conclude that herbivorous insects may limit the capacity of forests to function as sinks for anthropogenic carbon emissions in a high CO2 world.

Long-term exposure to elevated CO2 and O3 alters aspen foliar chemistry across developmental stages.

Anthropogenic activities are altering levels of greenhouse gases to the extent that multiple and diverse ecosystem processes are being affected. Two gases that substantially influence forest health are atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2 ) and tropospheric ozone (O3 ). Plant chemistry will play an important role in regulating ecosystem processes in future environments, but little information exists about the longitudinal effects of elevated CO2 and O3 on phytochemistry, especially for long-lived species such as trees. To address this need, we analysed foliar chemical data from two genotypes of trembling aspen, Populus tremuloides, collected over 10 years of exposure to levels of CO2 and O3 predicted for the year 2050. Elevated CO2 and O3 altered both primary and secondary chemistry, and the magnitude and direction of the responses varied across developmental stages and between aspen genotypes. Our findings suggest that the effects of CO2 and O3 on phytochemical traits that influence forest processes will vary over tree developmental stages, highlighting the need to continue long-term, experimental atmospheric change research.

Improvements of a spatial frequency analyzer for automated characterization of holographic recording materials.

A spatial frequency analyzer was designed to simplify characterization studies for new holographic recording materials. Mechanical movements were automated and a complete informational system gave rapid characterization results. A good fringe stabilization unit was improved by adding simple holographic optical beam combiners. Experimental characterization of two different recording materials shows the versatility of this automated apparatus. Also we present modulation-transfer-function curves of dichromated gelatin between 500 and 3500 cycles/mm obtained with polarization volume transmission holograms.

Polarization holographic characterization of organic azo dyes/PVA films for real time applications.

Two azo dyes were introduced in polyvinyl alcohol matrices giving thin solid colored films on which they can record polarization volume holograms in real time. These new azo dye polymer photosensitive systems have been holographically studied. Holographic characterization was investigated to determine its optimal and dynamical recording application conditions. Under a light exposure of 300 mJ/cm(2), polarization volume real time holograms having 0.27% diffraction were produced. We present three simple uses based on the facts that these photosensitive films are erasable and reusable for many thousand write/read/erase cycles and that they may show a memory effect in specific conditions.

Real time hologram reinforcement demonstrated by thionine/PVA photoreducible thin layers.

Thionine dye dissolved in polyvinylalcohol matrix is a well-known photoreducible system that shows photochromism. Experiments on a real time hologram recording process performed by this system are presented here. During the reading process, a grating reinforcement was observed, and this phenomenon is qualitatively discussed.

Dichromated polyvinyl alcohol films used as a novel polarization real time holographic recording material.

Real time recording and reading of volume transmission holograms were performed with dichromated polyvinyl alcohol thin solid films (31 microm) that were easy to prepare and use. Real time holograms of high diffraction efficiency were produced without any chemical development, but these films were not erasable. The present holographic study of dichromated polyvinyl alcohol films permits the consideration of many engineering applications.

Modulation transfer function measurements for thin layers of azo dyes in PVA matrix used as an optical recording material.

Diffraction efficiencies and characteristic erasure times were measured for two recording materials suitable for real-time holography and four-wave mixing. A study of real-time transmission volume grating formation was done in conjunction with polarization states of the writing beams for 30-microm thick layers. Modulation transfer function curves presented were obtained using a versatile device for which the spatial frequency domain was 500-4000 cycles/mm.

Intermittent characteristic curves for Kodak 649F plates at 514.5 nm.

In a systematic study of sensitometric plate response for Kodak 649F, we have obtained various characteristic curves for intermittent exposures of laser light at 514.5 nm. Two different methods were used during the recording of specular exposures. We deduced typical values of the photographic parameters associated with these curves, many of which (T(A) - E; T(A) - logE; D - logE) are presented. The reciprocity law failure effects associated with many curves are discussed.

Diffraction efficiency of specular multiplexed holograms recorded on kodak 649f plates.

The value of the diffraction efficiency of one simple exposed hologram has been evaluated. Also the diffraction efficiency of ten and twenty incoherently superimposed holograms (multiplexed holograms) on the same area of a Kodak 649F plate was measured. Many of those results are related to the reciprocity lawfailure of the Kodak 649F plate response. We point out some divergences with known results and deduce some diffraction efficiency relations.