'Down pythons' throats we thrust live goats': snakes, zoos and animal welfare in nineteenth-century Britain.

In nineteenth-century Britain, captive snakes in menageries and zoological gardens were routinely fed with live prey - primarily rabbits, pigeons and guinea pigs. From the late 1860s, this practice began to generate opposition on animal welfare grounds, leading to a protracted debate over its necessity, visibility and morality. Focusing on the c.1870-1914 period, when the snake-feeding controversy reached its zenith, this article charts changing attitudes towards the treatment of reptiles in captivity and asks why an apparently niche practice generated so much interest. By looking at the biological arguments put forward for and against live feeding, the article traces the changing nature of humanitarian activism in the late nineteenth century and shows how the shifting character of the live-feeding debate paralleled wider trends in the animal welfare movement. It also highlights the different types of knowledge and expertise involved in the debate, as naturalists, veterinary surgeons, legal professionals, zookeepers and humanitarians offered conflicting perspectives on questions of reptilian dietary requirements and animal sentience.

The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the mental health and well-being of children and young people.

The COVID-19 pandemic has had an enormous impact across the world. In this discussion paper, we examine the effect that lockdown has had on the mental health and well-being of children and young people. We write from a UK perspective in the light of the international evidence. Many of the discussion points raised resonate globally. We discuss how these issues can be dealt with and set out potential solutions as we emerge from this global crisis.

Cyberbullying across the Lifespan of Education: Issues and Interventions from School to University.

Research on cyberbullying amongst students has tended to be conducted separately within specific education institutional contexts, schools, further education (FE) and higher education (HE), neglecting a view that takes account of the entire educational lifespan. The present article addresses this gap in the literature, providing a novel take on examining its nature, social environments, legal consequences and potentially helpful interventions. To facilitate this, the article conceptualises cyberbullying in broad terms, recognising that it can take multiple forms of online and digital practice including: spreading rumours, ridiculing and/or demeaning another person, casting aspirations on the grounds of race, disability, gender, religion or sexual orientation; seeking revenge or deliberately embarrassing a person by posting intimate photos or videos about them without their consent; accessing another's social networking profiles with malicious intent and socially excluding a person from a social network or gaming site. This article demonstrates that harm from cyberbullying is a cause for concern for students at each developmental stage and that there are continuities in its appearance that need to be challenged at each point in the educational lifespan. And inaccurately, by university, the idea that 'nothing can be done' still is one of the main concerns for the victims. The article concludes with five key recommendations for future research and practice across the educational lifespan.

Baja aceptación de los iguales e inadaptación emocio-nal/conductual en escolares: Efectos del estrés cotidiano, afrontamiento y sexo / Low peer acceptance and emotional/behavioural maladjustment in schoolchildren: Effects of daily stress, coping and sex

El presente estudio examina la relación entre la baja aceptación de los iguales e inadaptación emocional/conductual, teniendo en cuenta el efecto de variables como el estrés cotidiano, los estilos de afrontamiento y el sexo. La muestra se compone de 392 escolares (187 niñas y 205 niños) de 9 a 12 años. Se administró un procedimiento de evaluación de iguales mediante una escala de calificación, y medidas de autoinforme relativas a estrés cotidiano, estilos de afrontamiento e inadaptación emocional/conductual. Los análisis de regresión indican que el estrés cotidiano, el afrontamiento y el sexo son predictores significativos de inadaptación emocional/conductual, controlando la aceptación de los iguales. Los resultados obtenidos aportan información sobre factores subyacentes que posibilitan una mejor comprensión del desarrollo de problemas emociona-les/conductuales en escolares con baja aceptación en su grupo de referencia (AU)

This study examines the relationship between low peer acceptance and emotional/behavioural maladjustment, taking into account the effects of daily stress, coping styles and sex. The sample comprised 392 schoolchildren (187 females and 205 males) aged 9 to 12, to whom a peer rating scale was administered. Self-report measures of perceived daily stress, coping and emotional/behavioural maladjustment were also applied. Regression analysis indicated that daily stress, coping and sex were significant predictors of emotional/behavioural maladjustment, after controlling for peer acceptance. These results provide evidence about underlying factors that could help in understanding the development of emotional/behavioural problems in children with low peer acceptance (AU)

Overseas nurses' experiences of discrimination: a case of racist bullying?

AIM: We present three case studies of discrimination to illustrate how racist bullying as discriminatory practices operates in the workplace. BACKGROUND: Workplace bullying in the British health care sector is reported along with evidence of discrimination towards overseas-trained nurses recruited to work in the United Kingdom (UK). METHODS: The three interviews, which form the basis of the discussion in this paper, were selected purposively from a national study of overseas nurses because they present strong examples of the phenomenon of workplace bullying. The data on which this paper draws were collected through semi-structured, audio-recorded interviews and thematically re-analysed using nvivo V2. RESULTS: The national study showed how racism is entrenched in health workplaces. Our findings in this paper suggest that racism can be understood by the concept of racist bullying. There are four key findings which illustrate racist bullying in the workplace: abusive power relationships, communication difficulties, emotional reactions to racist bullying and responses to bullying. CONCLUSIONS: We argue that the literature on workplace bullying adds a layer of analysis of discrimination at the individual and organizational levels which enables us to further delineate racist bullying. We conclude that racist bullying can be specifically identified as a form of bullying. IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING MANAGERS: Our data may assist managers to challenge current workplace working practices and support bullied employees. The three interviews show different responses to racist bullying which allow us to explore some implications for management practice.

Peripheral vision: science and Creole patriotism in eighteenth-century Spanish America.

This article examines the study of natural history on the imperial periphery in late colonial Spanish America. It considers the problems that afflicted peripheral naturalists-lack of books, instruments, scholarly companionship, and skilled technicians. It discusses how these deprivations impacted upon their self-confidence and credibility as men of science and it examines the strategies adopted by peripheral naturalists to boost their scientific credibility. The article argues that Spanish American savants, deprived of the most up-to-date books and sophisticated instruments, emphasised instead their sustained experience of local nature and their familiarity with indigenous knowledge. It details how some creole naturalists, such as the Mexican José Antonio Alzate, questioned the applicability of European classificatory systems to American fauna and flora, and it analyses the complex relationship between natural science and creole patriotism.

Impact of a mental health teaching programme on adolescents.

BACKGROUND: Child and adolescent mental health disorders are present in around 10% of the population. Research indicates that many young people possess negative attitudes towards mental health difficulties among peers. AIMS: To assess the impact of a mental health teaching programme on adolescent pupils' understanding. METHOD: Two-group pre-test-post-test control group study in two English secondary schools. Experimental classes (School E) received a six-lesson teaching intervention on mental health; control classes (School C) did not. Participants were 14- and 15-year-old pupils. The intervention consisted of six lessons on mental health issues common to young people: stress; depression; suicide/self-harm; eating disorders; being bullied; and intellectual disability. School C was given access to these lesson plans and materials on completion of the study. Understanding was measured at two time points, Time 1 (T(1)) and Time 2 (T(2)), 8 months apart, by a Mental Health Questionnaire. Behavioural, emotional and relationship strengths and difficulties were measured by the self-rated Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) with five subscales: hyperactivity, emotional symptoms, conduct problems, peer problems and prosocial behaviour. RESULTS: At T(2), pupils in School E compared with those in School C showed significantly more sensitivity and empathy towards people with mental health difficulties. They also used significantly fewer pejorative expressions to describe mental health difficulties. There was a significant reduction in SDQ scores on conduct problems and a significant increase on prosocial behaviour among School E pupils compared with controls. Pupils valued the intervention highly, in particular the lessons on suicide/self-harm. CONCLUSIONS: Teaching 14- and 15-year-olds about mental health difficulties helps to reduce stigma by increasing knowledge and promoting positive attitudes. The intervention also reduced self-reported conduct problems and increased prosocial behaviour. Generally, participating pupils were positive about the importance of lessons on mental health, and said that they had learnt much about the lesson topics.

Teachers' and pupils' definitions of bullying.

BACKGROUND: Comparison of teachers' and pupils' definitions of bullying is important for considering the implications for reports of its incidence in schools, for the study of developmental trends in children's and adolescents' perceptions of the phenomenon and for evaluating the effectiveness of interventions designed to combat bullying. AIMS: To investigate the effects of gender, teacher/pupil status and, for pupils, bullied/non-bullied (target/non-target) status and age on the definition of bullying. SAMPLES: Teachers (N=225: 158 women, 67 men) and pupils (N=1,820: 466 boys, 460 girls were 11-12 years old, year 7, and 415 boys, 479 girls were 13-14 years, year 9) in 51 UK secondary schools participated in a questionnaire survey. A total of 557 of the pupils (117 girls and 117 boys aged 11-12 years, and 197 girls and 126 boys aged 13-14 years) reported that they had been bullied at some time in their present school. METHODS: Written questionnaire responses to the question, 'Say what you think bullying is' have been content analysed to derive two sets of categories, one of bullying behaviour and the other of effects of bullying on the target. RESULTS: Regarding both bullying behaviour and the effects of bullying on the target, teachers - by comparison with pupils - have been found to express more comprehensive ideas in their definitions. Specifically, pupils compared with teachers are more likely to restrict their definitions to direct bullying (verbal and/or physical abuse) and are less likely to refer to social exclusion, a power imbalance in the bully's favour and the bully's intention to cause the target hurt or harm and to feel threatened. Analysis of definitions on the bases of sex, pupil age and target/non-target status show that: targets are more likely than non-targets are to refer to the bully's physically and verbally abusive behaviour, and for Year 7 compared with Year 9 pupils, to suggest that bullies socially exclude targets; girls are more likely than boys are to mention verbal abuse and the effects on the target of 'Feels hurt/harm', but boys are more likely than girls are to construe bullying as involving repetition; older pupils are more likely than younger ones are to refer to a power imbalance in the bully's favour but, for bully targets, younger ones compared with older ones are more likely to invoke the idea of social exclusion in their definitions. CONCLUSIONS: The most important implication of the findings of this study that there are important differences between teachers' and pupils' definitions of bullying is that teachers need to listen carefully to what pupils have to say about bullying and work with and help them to develop their conceptions of the phenomenon. Some teachers, too, need to develop their conceptions of bullying.

Profiles of non-victims, escaped victims, continuing victims and new victims of school bullying.

BACKGROUND: Victims of school bullying are known to be at risk in peer relationships and to sometimes use ineffective coping strategies, but little previous research has examined differences among escaped victims, continuing victims and new victims. AIM: A follow-up design compared friendships, behavioural characteristics, victimization experiences and coping strategies of pupils who had 2 years previously answered a questionnaire identifying themselves as victims (V) or non-victims (NV) of school bullying and whose current victim status could be identified. SAMPLE: 406 pupils aged 13-16 years (190 boys, 216 girls): 175 non-victims (NV-NV), 146 escaped victims (V-NV), 27 new victims (NV-V) and 58 continuing victims (V-V). METHOD: Structured interviews were given to pupils, together with the SDQ. Teachers also filled in the SDQ. School records of attendance were obtained. RESULTS: Escaped victims did not differ greatly from non-victims, but had some self-perception of continuing peer relationship difficulties. Continuing victims, irrespective of gender, liked other pupils and breaktime less (but did not dislike other aspects of school), had fewer friends in school (but not outside school), more often missed school (sometimes because of bullying), scored high on problem scales of the SDQ, and were more likely to be involved in bullying others as well as being bullied. New victims tended to resemble continuing victims. Continuing victims did not differ from escaped victims on type of bullying, but new and continuing victims less often reported talking to someone about a specific incident of bullying. Most victims gave mainly victim-related reasons for the bullying having taken place. CONCLUSION: The results are discussed in relation to why some pupils become or continue to be victims in secondary school, and recommendations for anti-bullying procedures in schools designed to help such victims.

Interventions to reduce school bullying.

In the last 2 decades, school bullying has become a topic of public concern and research around the world. This has led to action to reduce the problem. We review interventions targeted at the school level (for example, whole school policy, classroom climate, peer support, school tribunal, and playground improvement), at the class level (for example, curriculum work), and at the individual level (for example, working with specific pupils). Effectiveness of interventions has been sporadically assessed. We review several systematically evaluated, large-scale, school-based intervention programs. Their effectiveness has varied, and we consider reasons for this. We suggest ways to improve the evaluation and comparability of studies, as well as the effectiveness of future interventions.

Knowledge, use of and attitudes towards peer support: a 2-year follow-up to the Prince's Trust survey.

This present study investigated how school peer support systems studied 2 years earlier in a survey funded by The Prince's Trust have evolved. In all, 413 pupils (actual and potential users of the systems) aged 13-14 (Year 9--Y9) and 15-16 (Year 11--Y11), 34 teachers in charge of systems and 80 peer supporters in 35 secondary schools were interviewed using structured schedules for the pupils and semi-structured ones for the teachers and peer supporters. All of these interviews focussed on the respondents' perceptions and experiences of the school's peer support system, including: the perceived benefits to users of the system; benefits to peer supporters; problems with the system and the attempts made to overcome them. There was widespread support for the systems and a strong sense that both teachers and peer supporters were increasingly confident about the value of their service. However, some problems remain, notably with regard to gender. The study documents difficulties in the recruitment and retention of boys as peer supporters because of peer pressure to conform to a "macho" image. The issue is discussed and some solutions presented.

Definitions of bullying: a comparison of terms used, and age and gender differences, in a fourteen-country international comparison.

The study of school bullying has recently assumed an international dimension, but is faced with difficulties in finding terms in different languages to correspond to the English word bullying. To investigate the meanings given to various terms, a set of 25 stick-figure cartoons was devised, covering a range of social situations between peers. These cartoons were shown to samples of 8- and 14-year-old pupils (N = 1,245; n = 604 at 8 years, n = 641 at 14 years) in schools in 14 different countries, who judged whether various native terms cognate to bullying, applied to them. Terms from 10 Indo-European languages and three Asian languages were sampled. Multidimensional scaling showed that 8-year-olds primarily discriminated nonaggressive and aggressive cartoon situations; however, 14-year-olds discriminated fighting from physical bullying, and also discriminated verbal bullying and social exclusion. Gender differences were less appreciable than age differences. Based on the 14-year-old data, profiles of 67 words were then constructed across the five major cartoon clusters. The main types of terms used fell into six groups: bullying (of all kinds), verbal plus physical bullying, solely verbal bullying, social exclusion, solely physical aggression, and mainly physical aggression. The findings are discussed in relation to developmental trends in how children understand bullying, the inferences that can be made from cross-national studies, and the design of such studies.