Controlled bone formation using ultrasound-triggered release of BMP-2 from liposomes.

Recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein 2 (rhBMP-2) is used clinically to enhance implant-mediated bone regeneration. However, there are risks associated with the high rhBMP-2 dose that is required in the implant to mitigate diffusional loss over the therapeutic timespan. On-demand, localized control over delivery of rhBMP-2, days after implantation, would therefore be an attractive solution in the area of bone repair and reconstruction, yet this has posed a significant challenge, with little data to support in vivo efficacy to date. To address this, we have developed novel liposome-rhBMP-2 nanocomplexes that release rhBMP-2 in response to non-thermogenic, clinical diagnostic ultrasound exposure. In vitro validation shows that rhBMP-2 release is in proportion to applied ultrasound pressure and duration of exposure. Moreover, here we show in vivo validation of this ultrasound-triggered rhBMP-2 delivery system in a standard mouse bone regeneration model. Implanted into hindleg muscles, the liposome-rhBMP-2 nanocomplexes induced local bone formation only after ultrasound exposure. Such post-implantation control of delivery has potential to improve the safety, efficacy and cost of rhBMP-2 use in bone reconstruction. Furthermore, this first proof-of-concept demonstration of in vivo efficacy for ultrasound-triggered liposomal delivery of rhBMP-2 has broader implications for tunable delivery of a variety of drugs and biologics in medicine and tissue engineering.

Luteolin inhibition of V-ATPase a3-d2 interaction decreases osteoclast resorptive activity.

V-ATPase-mediated acid secretion is required for osteoclast bone resorption. Osteoclasts are enriched in V-ATPase a3 and d2 subunit isoforms, and disruption of either of their genes impairs bone resorption. Using purified fusion proteins of a3 N-terminal domain (NTa3) and full-length d subunits we determined in a solid-phase binding assay that half-maximal binding of d1 or d2 to immobilized NTa3 occurs at 3.1 ± 0.4 or 3.6 ± 0.6 nM, respectively, suggesting equally high-affinity interactions. A high-throughput modification of this assay was then used to screen chemical libraries for a3-d2 interaction inhibitors, and luteolin, a naturally occurring flavonoid, was identified, with half-maximal inhibition at 2.4 ± 0.9 µM. Luteolin did not significantly affect NIH/3T3 or RAW 264.7 cell viability, nor did it affect cytokine-induced osteoclastogenesis of RAW 264.7 cells or bone marrow mononuclear cells at concentrations ≤ 40 µM. Luteolin inhibited osteoclast bone resorption with an EC(50) of approximately 2.5 µM, without affecting osteoclast actin ring formation. Luteolin-treated osteoclasts produced deeper resorption pits, but with decreased surface area, resulting in overall decreased pit volume. Luteolin did not affect transcription, or protein levels, of V-ATPase subunits a3, d2, and E, or V(1) V(0) assembly. Previous work has shown that luteolin can be effective in reducing bone resorption, and our studies suggest that this effect of luteolin may be through disruption of osteoclast V-ATPase a3-d2 interaction. We conclude that the V-ATPase a3-d2 interaction is a viable target for novel anti-resorptive therapeutics that potentially preserve osteoclast-osteoblast signaling important for bone remodeling.

Inhibition of osteoclast bone resorption by disrupting vacuolar H+-ATPase a3-B2 subunit interaction.

Vacuolar H(+)-ATPases (V-ATPases) are highly expressed in ruffled borders of bone-resorbing osteoclasts, where they play a crucial role in skeletal remodeling. To discover protein-protein interactions with the a subunit in mammalian V-ATPases, a GAL4 activation domain fusion library was constructed from an in vitro osteoclast model, receptor activator of NF-κB ligand-differentiated RAW 264.7 cells. This library was screened with a bait construct consisting of a GAL4 binding domain fused to the N-terminal domain of V-ATPase a3 subunit (NTa3), the a subunit isoform that is highly expressed in osteoclasts (a1 and a2 are also expressed, to a lesser degree, whereas a4 is kidney-specific). One of the prey proteins identified was the V-ATPase B2 subunit, which is also highly expressed in osteoclasts (B1 is not expressed). Further characterization, using pulldown and solid-phase binding assays, revealed an interaction between NTa3 and the C-terminal domains of both B1 and B2 subunits. Dual B binding domains of equal affinity were observed in NTa, suggesting a possible model for interaction between these subunits in the V-ATPase complex. Furthermore, the a3-B2 interaction appeared to be moderately favored over a1, a2, and a4 interactions with B2, suggesting a mechanism for the specific subunit assembly of plasma membrane V-ATPase in osteoclasts. Solid-phase binding assays were subsequently used to screen a chemical library for inhibitors of the a3-B2 interaction. A small molecule benzohydrazide derivative was found to inhibit osteoclast resorption with an IC(50) of ∼1.2 µm on both synthetic hydroxyapatite surfaces and dentin slices, without significantly affecting RAW 264.7 cell viability or receptor activator of NF-κB ligand-mediated osteoclast differentiation. Further understanding of these interactions and inhibitors may contribute to the design of novel therapeutics for bone loss disorders, such as osteoporosis and rheumatoid arthritis.