RESUMO
Resident memory T cells (TRM) present at the respiratory tract may be essential to enhance early SARS-CoV-2 viral clearance, thus limiting viral infection and disease. While long-term antigen (Ag)-specific TRM are detectable beyond 11 months in the lung of convalescent COVID-19 patients after mild and severe infection, it is unknown if mRNA vaccination encoding for the SARS-CoV-2 S-protein can induce this frontline protection. We found that the frequency of CD4+ T cells secreting interferon (IFN){gamma} in response to S-peptides was variable but overall similar in the lung of mRNA-vaccinated patients compared to convalescent-infected patients. However, in vaccinated patients, lung responses presented less frequently a TRM phenotype compared to convalescent infected individuals and polyfunctional CD107a+ IFN{gamma}+ TRM were virtually absent. Thus, a robust and broad TRM response established in convalescent-infected individuals may be advantageous in limiting disease if the virus is not blocked by initial mechanisms of protection, such as neutralization. Still, mRNA vaccines might induce responses within the lung parenchyma, potentially contributing to the overall disease control.
RESUMO
Initial symptoms of COVID-19 infection depend on viral replication, while hyperinflammation is a hallmark of critical illness and may drive severe pneumonia and death. Among the mechanisms potentially involved in the hyperinflammatory state, we focused on the unfolded protein response, because the IRE1-XBP1 branch can be activated as result of the endoplasmic reticulum stress produced by the overwhelming synthesis of viral components and synergizes with Toll-like receptor signaling to induce cytokine expression. Viral RNA may trigger the IRE1-XBP1 branch via TLR7/8 activation and like TLR2 and TLR4 may underpin cytokine expression trough XBP1 splicing (sXBP1). The expression of IL1B, IL6, and TNF mRNA in bronchoalveolar aspirates (BAAs) were higher in COVID-19 patients under mechanical ventilation and intubation who showed sXBP1. The scrutiny of monocytic/macrophagic markers during active infection showed a reduction of those involved in antigen presentation and survival, as well as the IFN stimulated gene MX1. These changes reverted after infection tests turned negative. In contrast, the expression of the mRNA of the serine protease TMPRSS2 involved in S protein priming showed a high expression during active infection. TLR8 mRNA showed an overwhelming expression as compared to TLR7 mRNA, which suggests the presence of monocyte-derived dendritic cells (MDDCs). In vitro experiments in MDDCs activated with ssRNA40, a positive-sense, single-stranded RNA (+ssRNA) like SARS-CoV-2 RNA, induced sXBP1 and the expression of IL-1{beta}, IL-6, and TNF at mRNA and protein levels. These responses were blunted by the IRE1 ribonuclease inhibitor MKC8866. Given the analogies between the results observed in BAAs and the effects induced by +ssRNA in MDDCs, IRE1 ribonuclease inhibition might be a druggable target in severe COVID-19 disease. O_FIG O_LINKSMALLFIG WIDTH=180 HEIGHT=200 SRC="FIGDIR/small/22269752v1_ufig1.gif" ALT="Figure 1"> View larger version (53K): org.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@13b04b3org.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@1b1af7corg.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@780104org.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@8ad0ba_HPS_FORMAT_FIGEXP M_FIG C_FIG Author summaryCOVID-19 pandemics put an unprecedented pressure on health systems. The need of new therapies urged research on the mechanisms triggered by the interaction of SARS-CoV-2 virus with host cells and the ensuing pathophysiology driving pneumonia and multiorgan failure. Hyperinflammation soon appeared as a mechanism involved in mortality that could even proceed after viral infection comes to an end. Hyperinflammation is supported by an inappropriate production of cytokines, and this explains the use of the term cytokine storm to refer to this phase of the disease. Given that insight into the molecular mechanisms driving cytokine storm should focus on the interaction of viral components with immune cells, experiments addressing the effect of viral components on its cognate receptors were carried out. It was observed that viral RNA induces a cytokine pattern like the one observed in bronchoalveolar aspirates of COVID-19 patients with critical disease. Overall, the study revealed that both cell organelle overload and receptors involved in the recognition of viral RNA may team up to induce proinflammatory cytokines. This mechanism can be exploited to develop new treatments for COVID-19 disease.
