Influence of environmental factors on the tropical peatlands diazotrophic communities from the Southern Brazilian Atlantic Rain Forest.

The tropical peatlands of southern Brazil are essential for the maintenance of the Atlantic Rain Forest, one of the 25 hotspots of biodiversity in the world. Although diazotrophic micro-organisms are essential for the maintenance of this nitrogen limited ecosystem, so far studies have focused only on micro-organisms involved in the carbon cycle. In this work, peat samples were collected from three tropical peatland regions during dry and rainy seasons and their chemical and microbial characteristics were evaluated. Our results showed that the structure of the diazotrophic communities in the Brazilian tropical peatlands differs in the evaluated seasons. The abundance of the genus Bradyrhizobium showed to be affected by rainfall and peat pH. Despite the shifts of the nitrogen-fixing population in the tropical peatland caused by seasonality it showed to be constantly dominated by α-Proteobacteria followed by Cyanobacteria. In addition, more than 50% of nifH gene sequences have not been classified, indicating the necessity for more studies in tropical peatland, since the reduction of N supply in the peatlands stimulates the recalcitrant organic matter decomposition performed by peatland micro-organisms, influencing the C stock.

Saving the Male Breast: A Systematic Literature Review of Breast-Conservation Surgery for Male Breast Cancer.

BACKGROUND: Male breast cancer (MBC) management is extrapolated from female BC. Mastectomy remains the most frequently used surgical procedure for male breast cancer (MBC). We performed a literature review to assess the use of breast-conservation (BCS) in MBC as well as outcomes following BCS. METHODS: A systematic literature was performed, and articles screened to identify studies that measured overall survival (OS), disease-free survival (DFS), or local recurrence (LR) in patients undergoing BCS. Weighted averages based on study size were performed for LR, DFS, and 5-year OS. RESULTS: Eight studies met the inclusion criteria with male breast surgery cases, and 859 (14.7%) underwent BCS. The mean follow-up time was 53 months, and mean age was 62.6 years, with stage II as the most common presentation. Two studies reported that 50-71.4% of patients underwent sentinel lymph node biopsy, and four studies reported axillary lymph node dissection in 14.3-100%. Five studies reported on adjuvant radiation therapy in 12.0-100% of total patients undergoing BCS. Four studies reported use of hormonal therapy in 73.8-100% of patients. Four studies reported use of chemotherapy in 25-66.7% of patients. Seven studies reported LR among 116 patients, with a weighted average of 9.9%. Three studies reported on DFS in 14 patients, with a weighted average 85.6%. Two studies report OS in 143 patients with a weighted average of 84.4%. CONCLUSIONS: Breast conservation may be considered a safe alternative in the surgical treatment of MBC. Future research should focus on better standardization of local therapy for MBC and improved reporting of outcomes.

A simple and efficient method for poly-3-hydroxybutyrate quantification in diazotrophic bacteria within 5 minutes using flow cytometry.

The conventional method for quantification of polyhydroxyalkanoates based on whole-cell methanolysis and gas chromatography (GC) is laborious and time-consuming. In this work, a method based on flow cytometry of Nile red stained bacterial cells was established to quantify poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) production by the diazotrophic and plant-associated bacteria, Herbaspirillum seropedicae and Azospirillum brasilense. The method consists of three steps: i) cell permeabilization, ii) Nile red staining, and iii) analysis by flow cytometry. The method was optimized step-by-step and can be carried out in less than 5 min. The final results indicated a high correlation coefficient (R2=0.99) compared to a standard method based on methanolysis and GC. This method was successfully applied to the quantification of PHB in epiphytic bacteria isolated from rice roots.

Autotrophic nitrogen removal over nitrite in a sponge-bed trickling filter.

Partial nitritation in sponge-bed trickling filters (STF) under natural air circulation was studied in two reactors: STF-1 and STF-2 operated at 30°C with sponge thickness of 0.75 and 1.50cm, respectively. The coexistence of nitrifiers and Anammox bacteria was obtained and attributed to the favorable environment created by the reactors' design and operational regimes. After 114days of operation, the STF-1 had an average NH4(+)-N removal of 69.3% (1.17kgN/m(3)sponged) and a total nitrogen removal of 52.2% (0.88kgN/m(3)sponged) at a Nitrogen Loading Rate (NLR) of 1.68kgN/m(3)sponged and Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT) of 1.71h. The STF-2 showed an average NH4(+)-N removal of 81.6 % (0.77kgN/m(3)sponged) and a total nitrogen removal of 54% (0.51kgN/m(3)sponged), at an NLR of 0.95kgN/m(3)sponged and HRT of 2.96h. The findings suggest that autotrophic nitrogen removal over nitrite in STF systems is a feasible alternative.

Anammox cultivation in a closed sponge-bed trickling filter.

A feasibility study was carried out to assess the cultivation of Anammox bacteria in lab-scale closed sponge-bed trickling filter (CSTF) reactors, namely: CSTF-1 at 20°C and CSTF-2 at 30°C. Stable conditions were reached from day 66 in CSTF-2 and from day 104 in CSTF-1. The early stability of CSTF-2 is attributable to the influence of temperature; nevertheless, by day 405, the nitrogen removal performed by CSTF-1 increased up to similar values of CSTF-2. The maximum total nitrogen removal efficiency was 82% in CSTF-1 and 84% in CSTF-2. After more than 400 days of operation, CSTF-1 and CSTF-2 were capable to attain a total nitrogen removal efficiency of 74±5% and 78±4% with a total nitrogen conversion rate of 1.52 and 1.60kg-N/m(sponge)(3)d, respectively. The proposed technology could be a suitable alternative for mainstream nitrogen removal in post-treatment units via the Anammox conversion pathway.

Microbial community and performance of slaughterhouse wastewater treatment filters.

The performance of anaerobic filter bioreactors (AFs) is influenced by the composition of the substrate, support medium, and the microbial species present in the sludge. In this study, the efficiency of a slaughterhouse effluent treatment using three AFs containing different support media was tested, and the microbial diversity was investigated by amplified ribosomal DNA restriction analysis and 16S rRNA gene sequencing. The physicochemical analysis of the AF systems tested suggested their feasibility, with rates of chemical oxygen demand removal of 72±8% in hydraulic retention times of 1 day. Analysis of pH, alkalinity, volatile acidity, total solids, total volatile solids, total Kjeldahl nitrogen, and the microbial community structures indicated high similarity among the three AFs. The composition of prokaryotic communities showed a prevalence of Proteobacteria (27.3%) and Bacteroidetes (18.4%) of the Bacteria domain and Methanomicrobiales (36.4%) and Methanosarcinales (35.3%) of the Archaea domain. Despite the high similarity of the microbial communities among the AFs, the reactor containing pieces of clay brick as a support medium presented the highest richness and diversity of bacterial and archaeal operational taxonomic units.

Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry analysis of Escherichia coli categories.

The mass profiles of cell-free extracts of 180 commensal and pathogenic strains of Escherichia coli were determined by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry (MS). While some peaks were highly conserved in all E. coli, several peaks occurred only in some strains, showing heterogeneity among them. We did not detect strain-specific peaks for any of the E. coli categories tested. However, review of the fully conserved and the variable peaks suggested that MALDI-TOF MS has the potential to distinguish commensal and uropathogenic E. coli strains. Additionally, eight Shigella sonnei isolates were tested and found to be indistinguishable from E. coli by MALDI-TOF MS under the test conditions.

Culture-independent analysis of endophytic bacterial communities associated with Brazilian sugarcane.

Sugarcane is an economically important culture in Brazil. Endophytic bacteria live inside plants, and can provide many benefits to the plant host. We analyzed the bacterial diversity of sugarcane cultivar RB-72454 by cultivation-independent techniques. Total DNA from sugarcane stems from a commercial plantation located in Paraná State was extracted. Partial 16S rRNA genes were amplified and sequenced for library construction. Of 152 sequences obtained, 52% were similar to 16S rRNA from Pseudomonas sp, and 35.5% to Enterobacter sp. The genera Pantoea, Serratia, Citrobacter, and Klebsiella were also represented. The endophytic communities in these sugarcane samples were dominated by the families Enterobacteriaceae and Pseudomonadaceae (class Gammaproteobacteria).

Prokaryotic communities of acidic peatlands from the southern Brazilian Atlantic Forest

The acidic peatlands of southern Brazil are ecosystems essential for the maintenance of the Atlantic Forest, one of the 25 hot-spots of biodiversity in the world. In this work, we investigated the composition of prokaryotic communities in four histosols of three acidic peatland regions by constructing small-subunit (SSU) rRNA gene libraries and sequencing. SSU rRNA gene sequence analysis showed the prevalence of Acidobacteria (38.8%) and Proteobacteria (27.4%) of the Bacteria domain and Miscellaneous (58%) and Terrestrial (24%) groups of Crenarchaeota of the Archaea domain. As observed in other ecosystems, archaeal communities showed lower richness than bacterial communities. We also found a limited number of Euryarchaeota and of known methanotrophic bacteria in the clone libraries.

Prokaryotic communities of acidic peatlands from the southern Brazilian Atlantic Forest.

The acidic peatlands of southern Brazil are ecosystems essential for the maintenance of the Atlantic Forest, one of the 25 hot-spots of biodiversity in the world. In this work, we investigated the composition of prokaryotic communities in four histosols of three acidic peatland regions by constructing small-subunit (SSU) rRNA gene libraries and sequencing. SSU rRNA gene sequence analysis showed the prevalence of Acidobacteria (38.8%) and Proteobacteria (27.4%) of the Bacteria domain and Miscellaneous (58%) and Terrestrial (24%) groups of Crenarchaeota of the Archaea domain. As observed in other ecosystems, archaeal communities showed lower richness than bacterial communities. We also found a limited number of Euryarchaeota and of known methanotrophic bacteria in the clone libraries.

Diversity of 16S rRNA genes from bacteria of sugarcane rhizosphere soil

Sugarcane is an important agricultural product of Brazil, with a total production of more than 500 million tons. Knowledge of the bacterial community associated with agricultural crops and the soil status is a decisive step towards understanding how microorganisms influence crop productivity. However, most studies aim to isolate endophytic or rhizosphere bacteria associated with the plant by culture-dependent approaches. Culture-independent approaches allow a more comprehensive view of entire bacterial communities in the environment. In the present study, we have used this approach to assess the bacterial community in the rhizosphere soil of sugarcane at different times and under different nitrogen fertilization conditions. At the high taxonomic level, few differences between samples were observed, with the phylum Proteobacteria (29.6 percent) predominating, followed by Acidobacteria (23.4 percent), Bacteroidetes (12.1 percent), Firmicutes (10.2 percent), and Actinobacteria (5.6 percent). The exception was the Verrucomicrobia phylum whose prevalence in N-fertilized soils was approximately 0.7 percent and increased to 5.2 percent in the non-fertilized soil, suggesting that this group may be an indicator of nitrogen availability in soils. However, at low taxonomic levels a higher diversity was found associated with plants receiving nitrogen fertilizer. Bacillus was the most predominant genus, accounting for 19.7 percent of all genera observed. Classically reported nitrogen-fixing and/or plant growth-promoting bacterial genera, such as Azospirillum, Rhizobium, Mesorhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, and Burkholderia were also found although at a lower prevalence.

Diversity of 16S rRNA genes from bacteria of sugarcane rhizosphere soil.

Sugarcane is an important agricultural product of Brazil, with a total production of more than 500 million tons. Knowledge of the bacterial community associated with agricultural crops and the soil status is a decisive step towards understanding how microorganisms influence crop productivity. However, most studies aim to isolate endophytic or rhizosphere bacteria associated with the plant by culture-dependent approaches. Culture-independent approaches allow a more comprehensive view of entire bacterial communities in the environment. In the present study, we have used this approach to assess the bacterial community in the rhizosphere soil of sugarcane at different times and under different nitrogen fertilization conditions. At the high taxonomic level, few differences between samples were observed, with the phylum Proteobacteria (29.6%) predominating, followed by Acidobacteria (23.4%), Bacteroidetes (12.1%), Firmicutes (10.2%), and Actinobacteria (5.6%). The exception was the Verrucomicrobia phylum whose prevalence in N-fertilized soils was approximately 0.7% and increased to 5.2% in the non-fertilized soil, suggesting that this group may be an indicator of nitrogen availability in soils. However, at low taxonomic levels a higher diversity was found associated with plants receiving nitrogen fertilizer. Bacillus was the most predominant genus, accounting for 19.7% of all genera observed. Classically reported nitrogen-fixing and/or plant growth-promoting bacterial genera, such as Azospirillum, Rhizobium, Mesorhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, and Burkholderia were also found although at a lower prevalence.

Apoptotic ratios and mitotic abnormalities in 17-ß-estradiol-transformed human breast epithelial MCF-10F cells.

Treatment of human breast epithelial cells MCF-10F with 17-ß-estradiol has been reported to result in E2-transformed cells which have given rise to highly invasive C5 cells that in turn generate tumors in SCID mice. From these tumors, various cell lines, among which C5-A6-T6 and C5-A8-T8, were obtained. Although different phases of the tumorigenesis process in this model have been studied in molecular biology and image analysis assays, no cytological data on apoptotic ratios and mitotic abnormalities have been established to accompany the various steps leading to 17-ß-estradiol-treated MCF-10F cells to tumorigenesis. Here we detected that the apoptotic ratio decreases with the transformation and tumorigenesis progress, except for the tumor cell line C5-A8-T8, probably on account of its more intense proliferation rate and a more rapid culture medium consumption. Increased frequency of mitotic abnormalities contributed by triple- and tetrapolar metaphases, and by lagging chromosomes and chromosome bridges observed at the anaphase found by transformation and tumorigenesis progress. However, no difference was found under these terms when the C5-A6-T6 and C5-A8-T8 tumor cell lines were compared to each other. Present findings are in agreement with the nuclear instability and enrichment of dysregulated genes in the apoptotic process promoted by transformation and tumorigenesis in 17-ß-estradiol-treated MCF-10F cells.

Apoptotic ratios and mitotic abnormalities in 17-Beta-estradiol-transformed human breast epithelial MCF-10F cells / Índices apoptóticos e anormalidades mitóticas em células epiteliais mamárias humanas MCF-10F transformadas pelo 17-Beta-estradiol

Treatment of human breast epithelial cells MCF-10F with 17-β-estradiol has been reported to result in E2-transformed cells which have given rise to highly invasive C5 cells that in turn generate tumors in SCID mice. From these tumors, various cell lines, among which C5-A6-T6 and C5-A8-T8, were obtained. Although different phases of the tumorigenesis process in this model have been studied in molecular biology and image analysis assays, no cytological data on apoptotic ratios and mitotic abnormalities have been established to accompany the various steps leading to 17-β-estradiol-treated MCF-10F cells to tumorigenesis. Here we detected that the apoptotic ratio decreases with the transformation and tumorigenesis progress, except for the tumor cell line C5-A8-T8, probably on account of its more intense proliferation rate and a more rapid culture medium consumption. Increased frequency of mitotic abnormalities contributed by triple- and tetrapolar metaphases, and by lagging chromosomes and chromosome bridges observed at the anaphase found by transformation and tumorigenesis progress. However, no difference was found under these terms when the C5-A6-T6 and C5-A8-T8 tumor cell lines were compared to each other. Present findings are in agreement with the nuclear instability and enrichment of dysregulated genes in the apoptotic process promoted by transformation and tumorigenesis in 17-β-estradiol-treated MCF-10F cells.

O tratamento das células epiteliais mamárias humanas MCF-10F com 17-β-estradiol tem sido relatado como resultando nas células transformadas E2, que deram origem às células C5, altamente invasivas, e que geraram tumores em camundongos SCID. A partir desses tumores foram originadas em cultura células tumorais, dentre as quais C5-A6-T6 e C5-A8-T8. Embora diversas fases do processo tumorigênico neste modelo tenham sido estudadas por ensaios de biologia molecular e análise de imagem, não foram ainda estimados dados citológicos referentes a índices apoptóticos e anomalias mitóticas que acompanhassem os vários passos que levam as células CF-10F tratadas com 17-β-estradiol à tumorigênese. Neste trabalho detectamos que o índice apoptótico decresce com a transformação e o avanço da tumorigênese, exceto na linhagem celular tumoral C5-A8-T8, provavelmente por causa de sua velocidade de proliferação mais intensa, que poderia levá-la a um consumo mais rápido do meio de cultura presente e à morte celular. Um aumento na frequência de anomalias mitóticas contribuídas por metáfases tripolares e tetrapolares e por pontes cromossômicas e cromossomos desgarrados, identificáveis na anáfase, foi observado com a transformação e o progresso da tumorigênese. Contudo não foram detectadas diferenças nesses parâmetros quando se compararam as linhagens tumorais C5-A6-T6 e C5-A8-T8 entre si. Os presentes achados estão de acordo com a instabilidade nuclear e o enriquecimento em desregulação de genes que atuam no processo apoptótico, promovidos pela transformação e tumorigênese nas células MCF-10F tratadas com 17-β-estradiol.

Influence of soil characteristics on the diversity of bacteria in the Southern Brazilian Atlantic Forest.

The Brazilian Atlantic Forest is one of the 25 biodiversity hot spots in the world. Although the diversity of its fauna and flora has been studied fairly well, little is known of its microbial communities. In this work, we analyzed the Atlantic Forest ecosystem to determine its bacterial biodiversity, using 16S rRNA gene sequencing, and correlated changes in deduced taxonomic profiles with the physicochemical characteristics of the soil. DNAs were purified from soil samples, and the 16S rRNA gene was amplified to construct libraries. Comparison of 754 independent 16S rRNA gene sequences from 10 soil samples collected along a transect in an altitude gradient showed the prevalence of Acidobacteria (63%), followed by Proteobacteria (25.2%), Gemmatimonadetes (1.6%), Actinobacteria (1.2%), Bacteroidetes (1%), Chloroflexi (0.66%), Nitrospira (0.4%), Planctomycetes (0.4%), Firmicutes (0.26%), and OP10 (0.13%). Forty-eight sequences (6.5%) represented unidentified bacteria. The Shannon diversity indices of the samples varied from 4.12 to 3.57, indicating that the soils have a high level of diversity. Statistical analysis showed that the bacterial diversity is influenced by factors such as altitude, Ca(2+)/Mg(2+) ratio, and Al(3+) and phosphorus content, which also affected the diversity within the same lineage. In the samples analyzed, pH had no significant impact on diversity.

Chemical composition of lipopolysaccharides isolated from various endophytic nitrogen-fixing bacteria of the genus Herbaspirillum.

Bacteria from the genus Herbaspirillum are endophytes responsible for nitrogen fixation in gramineous plants of economic importance such as maize, sugarcane, sorghum, rice, and wheat. Some species are known to produce plant growth substances. In contrast, Herbaspirillum rubrisubalbicans strains are known to be mild plant pathogens. The molecular communication between the plant and the microbes might involve lipopolysaccharides present in the outer membrane of these gram-negative bacteria. Phenol-water extraction was used to obtain lipopolysaccharides from 7 strains of Herbaspirillum seropedicae (SmR1, Z67, Z78, ZA95, and M2) and H. rubrisubalbicans (M1 and M4). The electrophoretic profiles and chemical composition of the lipopolysaccharides obtained in the phenol and aqueous extracts were shown herein.

Diversity of endophytic bacteria in Brazilian sugarcane.

Endophytic bacteria live inside plant tissues without causing disease. Studies of endophytes in sugarcane have focused on the isolation of diazotrophic bacteria. We examined the diversity of endophytic bacteria in the internal tissues of sugarcane stems and leaves, using molecular and biochemical methods. Potato-agar medium was used to cultivate the endophytes; 32 isolates were selected for analysis. DNA was extracted and the 16S rRNA gene was partially sequenced and used for molecular identification. Gram staining, catalase and oxidase tests, and the API-20E system were used to characterize the isolates. The strains were divided into five groups, based on the 16S rRNA sequences. Group I comprised 14 representatives of the Enterobacteriaceae; group II was composed of Bacilli; group III contained one representative, Curtobacterium sp; group IV contained representatives of the Pseudomonadaceae family, and group V had one isolate with an uncultured bacterium. Four isolates were able to reduce acetylene to ethylene. Most of the bacteria isolated from the sugarcane stem and leaf tissues belonged to Enterobacteriaceae and Pseudomonaceae, respectively, demonstrating niche specificity. Overall, we found the endophytic bacteria in sugarcane to be more diverse than previously reported.

Transition probabilities for the Au ((2)S, (2)D, and (2)P) with SiH(4) reaction.

Transition probabilities on the interaction of the ground and the lowest excited states of gold Au ((2)S:5d(10)6s(1), (2)D:5d(9)6s(2), and (2)P:5d(10)6p(1)) with silane (SiH(4)) are studied through ab initio Hartree-Fock self-consistent field calculations, where the atom's core is represented by relativistic effective core potentials. These calculations are followed by a multiconfigurational self-consistent field study. The correlation energy is accounted for through extensive variational and perturbative second order multireference Moller-Plesset configuration interaction analysis of selected perturbations obtained by iterative process calculations using the CIPSI program package. It is found that the Au atom in the ((2)P:5d(10)6p(1)) state inserts in the Si-H bond. In this interaction its corresponding D (2)A(') potential energy surface is initially attractive and only becomes repulsive after encountering an avoided crossing with the initially repulsive C (2)A(') surface linked to the Au((2)D:5d(9)6s(2))-SiH(4) fragments. The A, B, and C (2)A(') curves derived from the Au((2)D:5d(9)6s(2)) atom interaction with silane are initially repulsive, each one of them showing two avoided crossings, while the A (2)A(') curve goes sharply downwards until it meets the X (2)A(') curve interacting adiabatically, which is linked with the Au((2)S:5d(10)6s(1))-SiH(4) moieties. The A (2)A(') curve becomes repulsive after the avoided crossing with the X (2)A('), curve. The lowest-lying X (2)A(') potential leads to the HAuSiH(3) X (2)A(') intermediate molecule. This intermediate molecule, diabatically correlated with the Au((2)P:5d(10)6p(1))+SiH(4) system which lies 3.34 kcal/mol above the ground state reactants, has been carefully characterized as have the dissociation channels leading to the AuH+SiH(3) and H+AuSiH(3) products. These products are reached from the HAuSiH(3) intermediate without any activation barrier. The Au-SiH(4) calculation results are successfully compared to experiment. Landau-Zener theory of avoided crossings is applied to these interactions considering the angle theta instead of the distance r as the reaction coordinate.

Topical anesthesia versus sub-Tenon block for cataract surgery: surgical conditions and patient satisfaction.

PURPOSE: To compare the surgical conditions and complications and patient and surgeon satisfaction in cataract surgery by phacoemulsification under topical anesthesia (TA) versus sub-Tenon block (STB). METHODS: Prospective randomized comparative blind study, without placebo control. Patient satisfaction evaluated by the Iowa Satisfaction with Anesthesia Scale (ISAS). RESULTS: The authors prospectively enrolled 59 patients (61% female) in the study, who were randomized into groups: 26 in the TA group and 33 in the STB. There was no statistically significant difference between the groups in terms of age, sex, waiting time for surgery, ASA (American Society of Anesthesiologists) state, eye laterality, cataract density, pupillary dilation, or surgery duration, but patient collaboration was better in the STB group. We found a mean 2.2 mmHg post-anesthetic rise in intraocular pressure in the STB group, with normalization at 24 hours, and no rise in the TA group. Subconjunctival hemorrhage and chemosis were more prevalent in the STB group, and the improvement of visual acuity was similar in both groups. Subjective satisfaction with the anesthetic technique, both for the surgeon and for the patient, was more elevated in the STB group. The final ISAS scores were 1.87 in the TA group and 2.71 in the STB (p<0.005). CONCLUSIONS: The data indicate that more significant anesthesia and analgesia was achieved with the STB, leading to more favorable surgical conditions and enhanced patient and surgeon satisfaction.

Environmental isolation of black yeast-like fungi involved in human infection.

The present study focuses on potential agents of chromoblastomycosis and other endemic diseases in the state of Paraná, Southern Brazil. Using a highly selective protocol for chaetothyrialean black yeasts and relatives, environmental samples from the living area of symptomatic patients were analysed. Additional strains were isolated from creosote-treated wood and hydrocarbon-polluted environments, as such polluted sites have been supposed to enhance black yeast prevalence. Isolates showed morphologies compatible with the traditional etiological agents of chromoblastomycosis, e.g. Fonsecaea pedrosoi and Phialophora verrucosa, and of agents of subcutaneous or systemic infections like Cladophialophora bantiana and Exophiala jeanselmei. Some agents of mild disease were indeed encountered. However, molecular analysis proved that most environmental strains differed from known etiologic agents of pronounced disease syndromes: they belonged to the same order, but mostly were undescribed species. Agents of chromoblastomycosis and systemic disease thus far are prevalent on the human host. The hydrocarbon-polluted environments yielded yet another spectrum of chaetothyrialean fungi. These observations are of great relevance because they allow us to distinguish between categories of opportunists, indicating possible differences in pathogenicity and virulence.