Behavioral and physiological responses to subgroup size and number of people in howler monkeys inhabiting a forest fragment used for nature-based tourism.

Animals' responses to potentially threatening factors can provide important information for their conservation. Group size and human presence are potentially threatening factors to primates inhabiting small reserves used for recreation. We tested these hypotheses by evaluating behavioral and physiological responses in two groups of mantled howler monkeys (Alouatta palliata mexicana) at the "Centro Ecológico y Recreativo El Zapotal", a recreational forest reserve and zoo located in the Mexican state of Chiapas. Both groups presented fission-fusion dynamics, splitting into foraging subgroups which varied in size among, but not within days. Neither subgroup size nor number of people had an effect on fecal cortisol. Out of 16 behavioral response variables tested, the studied factors had effects on six: four were affected by subgroup size and two were affected by number of people. With increasing subgroup size, monkeys increased daily path lengths, rested less, increased foraging effort, and used more plant individuals for feeding. As the number of people increased, monkeys spent more time in lower-quality habitat, and less time engaged in social interactions. Although fecal cortisol levels were not affected by the factors studied, one of the monkey groups had almost twice the level of cortisol compared to the other group. The group with higher cortisol levels also spent significantly more time in the lower-quality habitat, compared to the other group. Our results suggest that particular behavioral adjustments might allow howler monkeys at El Zapotal to avoid physiological stress due to subgroup size and number of people. However, the fact that one of the monkey groups is showing increased cortisol levels may be interpreted as a warning sign, indicating that an adjustment threshold is being reached, at least for part of the howler monkey population in this forest fragment.

Living on the edge: roads and edge effects on small mammal populations.

1. Roads may affect wildlife populations through habitat loss and disturbances, as they create an abrupt linear edge, increasing the proportion of edge exposed to a different habitat. Three types of edge effects have been recognized: abiotic, direct biotic, and indirect biotic. 2. We explored the direct biotic edge effects of 3- to 4-m wide roads, and also a previously unrecognized type of edge effect: social. We live-trapped two threatened endemic rodents from Cozumel Island (Oryzomys couesi cozumelae and Reithrodontomys spectabilis) in 16 plots delimited by roads on two sides, to compare edge effects between two adjacent edges (corners), single-edge and interior forest, on life history and social variables. 3. No significant edge effects were observed on the life-history variables, with the exception of differences in body condition between males and females of O. c. cozumelae near edges. Both species showed significant and contrasting effects on their social variables. 4. O. c. cozumelae was distributed according to its age and sex: the proportion of adults and males was higher in interior than near edges, while juveniles and females were more abundant near edges. More nonreproductive females were present in corners than in single-edge and interior, while the opposite distribution was observed for nonreproductive males. 5. The distribution of R. spectabilis was related to its age and reproductive condition, but not to its sex. The proportion of adults was significantly higher in corners, while juveniles were only caught in single-edge and interior quadrants. The proportion of reproductive individuals was higher in edge than interior quadrants, while reproductive females were only present in edge quadrants. 6. We found significant differences between the quadrants with the greatest edge exposure in comparison with other quadrants. The social edge effects we identified complement the typology of edge effects recognized in ecological literature. Our study provides insight into the effects that sharp road edges have on biological and social characteristics of small mammal populations, highlighting how such effects vary among species. Our findings have important conservation implications for these threatened species, but are also applicable in a broader context wherever there are abrupt edges caused by linear landscape features.

An evaluation of threatened species categorization systems used on the American continent.

Endangered species lists are important tools in conservation. It is essential that these lists be prepared using categorization systems that objectively assess species extinction risk. To determine which threatened species categorization system is the most appropriate and the virtues and limitations of systems used on the American continent, we evaluated 25 categorization systems from 20 countries. These systems included examples of international lists, most national systems used on the American continent, and some systems independently proposed by academics. We based our assessment on 15 characteristics that categorization systems should have, in terms of categories, criteria, and other relevant issues, in order to evaluate species conservation status objectively. Of all evaluated systems, the current World Conservation Union system is the most suitable for assessing species extinction risk. Most categorization systems, but particularly national systems, have serious deficiencies and need to be improved substantially. We recommend governments use three types of lists: (1) threatened species lists constructed following a sound categorization system, (2) lists of species of conservation priority, and (3) lists that serve as normative tools (e.g., Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora). Additionally, the information used to categorize species should be explicit and available to the public. To make the most of threatened species lists in conservation, it is imperative that all countries use the same categorization system.

Effects of Land-Cover Changes on Mammals in a Neotropical Region: a Modeling Approach.

Land-cover changes translate into shifts in habitat available to wildlife species. I analyzed the effects of land-cover changes on habitat availability for 54 mammal species in a 2.7 million-ha area in southern Mexico and northern Guatemala. I considered the regional variability of these changes and the effect of variation in management and development trends. Using cluster analysis, I grouped mammal species into assemblages with similar associations of land-cover type. Based on data from a remote-sensing, land-cover change analysis (1974-1986), I created simple linear Markov models for a heuristic tool to simulate land-cover changes over a 60-year period and to explore temporal trends of change in habitat availability for the mammal species. I used elasticity analyses to identify land-cover transition probabilities critical for these trajectories. Of the 12 land-cover classes considered, four dominated the area: grasslands, tropical secondary vegetation, tropical moist forests, and wetlands. Transition probabilities to and from these four land-cover types were key in determining the availability of habitat for mammals. Thus, the relatedness of mammal species to these land-cover types seems critical for their long-term persistence in the region. According to general simulated trends in fluctuation of habitat availability, I classified species into seven categories: (1) opportunistic and highly adaptable species, occupying most of the area; (2) opportunistic, human-commensal species, with restricted range in the study area; (3) species with stable and moderate habitat availability; (4) species with moderate but increasing habitat availability; (5) species with originally moderate but declining habitat availability; (6) species with already reduced and sharply declining habitat availability; and ( 7) species with declining habitat availability and a restricted range. Markovian trajectories suggest a declining trend of habitat availability for 32 species (59%). Land-cover change trends, however, were highly variable between the nine subregions. As a result, habitat availability for many species varied regionally. Likewise, changes in management and development policies and trends in the study area will lead to contrasting habitat availability for declining and increasing species, but not for the rest of the species. The approach I used is useful for (1) assessment of land-cover changes resulting from different development trends and management practices and (2) exploration of how changes may affect species habitat availability and survival perspectives. This examination can be accomplished for a substantial part of a biota and for entire regions, even in the context of limited information.

RESUMEN: Los cambios en la cobertura del suelo se traducen en cambios de la disponibilidad del hábitat para las especies de vida silvestre. Analicé los efectos de los cambios en la cobertura del suelo sobre la disponibilidad de hábitat para 54 especies de mamíferos en un área de 2.7 millones de hectáreas del sureste de México y el norte de Guatemala, tomando en cuenta la variabilidad regional de estos cambios y los efectos de la variación en el manejo y tendencias de desarrollo. Agrupé las especies de mamíferos en ensamblajes con similar asociación a los tipos de cobertura del suelo (i.e., requerimientos de hábitat), usando un análisis de cúmulos. Con base en datos de percepción remota de los cambios de la cobertura del suelo (1974-1986), elaboré modelos lineares simples de Markov usados como una herramienta heurística para simular cambios en la cobertura del suelo por un período de 60 años y para explorar tendencias temporales de cambio en la disponibilidad de hábitat para las especies de mamíferos. Utilicé análisis de elasticidad para identificar las probabilidades de transición en la cobertura del suelo más críticas para estas trayectorias. De las 12 clases de cobertura consideradas, cuatro dominaron el área de estudio: pastizales, vegetación tropical secundaria, bosque tropical húmedo y humedales. Las probabilidades de transición hacia y desde estos cuatro tipos de cobertura fueron de importancia clave para determinar la disponibilidad de hábitat para los mamíferos. Por lo tanto, el grado de relación entre los mamíferos y estos tipos de cobertura parece ser crítico para su persistencia en la región. De acuerdo con las tendencias generales simuladas de fluctuación de la disponibilidad del hábitat, hubo siete categorías de especies: (1) especies oportunistas y altamente adaptables, ocupando la mayoría del área de estudio; (2) especies oportunistas, comensales de humanos, con distribución restringida en el área de estudio; (3) especies con disponibilidad de hábitat estable y moderada; (4) especies con disponibilidad de hábitat moderada, pero en incremento; (5) especies con disponibilidad de hábitat originalmente moderada, pero actualmente en disminución; (6) especies con disponibilidad de hábitat ya reducida y disminuyendo rápidamente; y ( 7) especies con disponibilidad de hábitat en disminución y con distribución restringida en el área de estudio. Las trayectorias Markovianas sugieren una tendencia de disminución en la disponibilidad del hábitat para 32 especies (59%). Sin embargo, las tendencias de cambio en la cobertura del suelo fueron altamente variables entre las nueve subregiones consideradas. Asimismo, la disponibilidad del hábitat para muchas especies varió regionalmente. De la misma manera, los cambios en el manejo y en las políticas y tendencias de desarrollo en el área de estudio conducirán a una disponibilidad contrastante de hábitat para las especies en disminución y para aquéllas en incremento, pero no para el resto de las especies. La metodología que utilicé es muy útil para: 1) la evaluación de los cambios en la cobertura del suelo que resultan de diferentes tendencias de desarrollo y prácticas de manejo y 2) para explorar la forma en que estos cambios pueden afectar la disponibilidad de hábitat y las perspectivas de supervivencia de las especies. Este análisis puede ser llevado a cabo para una parte substancial de una biota y para regiones enteras, aún cuando se disponga de información limitada.

Monitoring Mammal Populations in Costa Rican Protected Areas under Different Hunting Restrictions.

It is necessary to assess whether the management of protected areas is achieving the objectives set for them. In particular, changes and trends in wildlife populations should be documented. We compared the 1990 abundance of mammals in two Costa Rican protected areas, Corcovado National Park (CNP) and Golfo Dulce Forest Reserve (GDFR), with similar environmental characteristics but different hunting restrictions and levels of protection. We also monitored the abundance of mammals in CNP over a 4-year period. We also devised an inexpensive method of monitoring tropical rainforest mammal populations in a timely and efficient manner. The method is based on the use of mammal track records and arboreal mammal sightings and requires little effort. With this method 20 mammal species were recorded at CNP and 15 at GDFR. Species were consistently less abundant in GDFR than in CNP, principally those species preferred by hunters. Species were grouped according to whether or not they are used as food and whether they are locally or globally threatened or not threatened. The abundance of all these groups of species in GDFR was 6-28% the abundance in CNP. During 1990-1994, overall mammal abundance in CNP remained relatively stable, but there was considerable variability among species. As a group, both species used for food and globally threatened species declined in abundance during that period in CNP. The abundance of all groups of species declined from 1992 to 1994, coinciding with a reduction in hunting vigilance at CNP. Evidence suggests that the main factor differentiating the abundance of mammals in the two protected areas, and at CNP during the study period, was the level of hunting. Golfo Dulce Forest Reserve seems to be achieving only partial success in protecting wildlife, whereas Corcovado National Park seems to be considerably more effective, although not entirely successful.

RESUMEN: Es necesario evaluar si el manejo de áreas protegidas está cumpliendo con sus objetivos establecidos. En particular, se deben documentar los cambios y tendencias de las poblaciones de vida silvestre. En este estudio comparamos la abundancia de los mamíferos durante 1990 en dos áreas protegidas de Costa Rica con características ambientales semejantes, pero con diferentes restricciones en cuanto a la cacería y diferentes niveles de protección: el Parque Nacional Corcovado (PNC) y la Reserva Forestal Golfo Dulce ( RFGD). También comparamos la abundancia de los mamíferos en el PNC durante un periodo de cuatro años (1990-1994). Además desarrollamos un método barato, basado en el registro de huellas de mamíferos y en avistamientos de mamíferos arborícolas. Este método requiere de poco esfuerzo y se puede usar para dar seguimiento a las poblaciones de mamíferos selváticos de manera rápida y eficiente. Con este método registramos la abundancia de 20 especies en el PNC y de 15 en la RFGD. Todas las especies fueron consistentemente menos abundantes en la RFGD que en el PNC, principalmente aquéllas preferidas por los cazadores. Agrupamos las especies según su uso o no como alimento y según si se consideran amenazadas o no, a nivel local o mundial. La abundancia de todos estos grupos de especies en la RFGD fue de entre 6 al 28% de su abundancia en el PNC. De 1990 a 1994 la abundancia general de los mamíferos en el PNC se mantuvo relativamente estable, pero hubo considerable variabilidad entre las especies. A nivel de grupo, la abundancia en el PNC de las especies utilizadas como alimento y aquéllas amenazadas mundialmente decayó durante ese periodo. La abundancia de todos los grupos decayó de 1992 a 1994, coincidiendo con una reducción en la vigilancia de las actividades de cacería en el PNC. La evidencia sugiere que el principal factor que distingue la abundancia de los mamíferos en las dos áreas protegidas, y en el PNC durante el periodo de estudio fue el nivel de cacería. El éxito de la Reserva Forestal Golfo Dulce en cuanto a la protección de la fauna parece ser parcial, mientras que en el Parque Nacional Corcovado parece ser considerablemente más eficiente, aunque no del todo exitoso.