A Comparison of Methods Used to Determine Percent Body Fat, Minimum Wrestling Weight, and Lowest Allowable Weight Class.

ABSTRACT: Cutrufello, PT, Landram, MJ, Venezia, AC, and Dixon, CB. A comparison of methods used to determine percent body fat, minimum wrestling weight, and lowest allowable weight class. J Strength Cond Res 35(3): 633-637, 2021-The National Collegiate Athletic Association's weight management program allows for the use of skinfold measurements (SF), air displacement plethysmography (ADP), and hydrostatic weighing in the assessment of percent body fat (%BF) and determination of a wrestler's minimum wrestling weight (MWW). Dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) and ultrasound (US) may offer alternative assessment methods. The purpose of this study was to examine %BF, MWW, and the lowest allowable weight class as determined by SF, ADP, DXA, and US. Thirty-three college-aged men (20.8 ± 1.1 years) participated. Urine specific gravity (Usg) was assessed to ensure proper hydration (1.006 ± 0.006). Percent body fat and MWW were then determined using the 4 assessment methods. Each method was significantly different from one another (p < 0.05) with the exception of ADP compared with SF (17.6 ± 7.1% vs. 17.4 ± 6.3%, p = 1.000) and DXA compared with US (20.5 ± 6.2% vs. 19.2 ± 7.5%, p = 0.124). DXA (68.6 ± 7.1 kg) and US (69.3 ± 6.0 kg) determined the lowest MWW, whereas those determined by SF (70.8 ± 6.8 kg) and ADP (70.9 ± 6.6 kg) were significantly greater (p< 0.05). The SEEs for MWW when compared with SF were 3.2, 3.4, and 2.4 kg for ADP, DXA, and US, respectively. Compared with SF, DXA and US would allow wrestlers to certify at a lower weight class 64 and 33% of the time, respectively. When comparing the approved methods (SF and ADP), approximately 50% of subjects would certify at a different weight class depending on the method used. The use of different methods in assessing %BF offer a wide variability in the determination of MWW.

The effect of music on anaerobic exercise performance and muscular endurance.

BACKGROUND: Music has been shown to improve aerobic and anaerobic exercise performance; however, music's effect on resistance training exercise, gender differences, and heart rate (HR) is less understood. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of self-selected music on anaerobic exercise performance using a bench press (BP) protocol and the Wingate anaerobic test (WAT). METHODS: Fifteen (8 men; 7 women) healthy, college-aged students between 18-25 years old (20.1±1.79 yrs) participated in this study. Testing consisted of two trials (music [M]; no music [NM]] completed in a randomized order. Each participant performed the BP for a maximum number of repetitions using 70% one-repetition maximum for five sets. After a 10 min rest period, a 30 s Wingate anaerobic Test (WAT) was completed. RESULTS: During the M condition, there was a significant increase in total work (M: 16121.8±4287.3 kJ; NM: 15021.7±4370.6 kJ; P=0.024), relative peak power (M: 44.6±8.4 W; NM: 41.4±8.4 W; P=0.014), and the total number of bench press repetitions (M: 41.7±8.7 reps; NM: 38.3±8.1 reps; P=0.001). HR recovery following the WAT protocol was significantly quicker after the WAT protocol during the M condition (M: 256.2±54.5 sec.; NM 293.3±22.3 sec.; P=0.022). There was no significant condition as for gender interaction for any of the variables assessed. CONCLUSIONS: Listening to self-selected music improved exercise performance during the BP and the WAT. Music also hastened HR recovery following the WAT.

Coaches' perceptions of the quality of care provided by athletic trainers.

BACKGROUND: The coach's perception of the quality of care provided by the athletic trainer (AT) is essential in providing the best care for the athlete given the coaches' influential role on the sports medicine team. The purpose of this study was to examine National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) coaches' perceptions of the quality of care provided by the athletic trainer (AT). METHODS: A survey was used to assess NCAA coaches' perceptions in both 1998 and 2016 in order to provide an analysis of change over time. RESULTS: A total of 261 NCAA coaches (129 in 1998 and 132 in 2016) participated. There was a significant difference between the perception scores of coaches from high-profile sports (74.9±13.6) and low-profile sports (72.0±13.2; P=0.01) and between coaches surveyed in 1998 (75.9±11.7) and 2016 (70.2±14.3; P<0.01). However, there was no significant difference between the perception scores of coaches from Division I (74.3±13.3), II (70.1±13.9), or III (74.2±12.7; P=0.11) institutions. CONCLUSIONS: The perceptions of coaches from high-profile sports are greater than those from low-profile sports. The perceptions of coaches surveyed in 1998 are greater than those surveyed in 2016. The factors that appear to influence the perceptions of coaches include equality for all athletes regardless of sport, adequate staffing of the athletic training room, and effective communication between the coach and AT.

Range of Motion Adaptations in Powerlifters.

Gadomski, SJ, Ratamess, NA, and Cutrufello, PT. Range of motion adaptations in powerlifters. J Strength Cond Res 32(11): 3020-3028, 2018-The aim of this study was to investigate range of motion (ROM) and training patterns in powerlifters. Upper- and lower-extremity passive ROMs were assessed through goniometry in 15 male powerlifters (35.3 ± 13.7 years) and 15 age-matched controls (34.9 ± 14.6 years). The Apley scratch test and modified Thomas test were used to assess ROM across multiple joints. Training frequency, stretching frequency, and exercise selection were recorded using questionnaires. Passive glenohumeral (GH) extension, internal rotation, and external rotation ROM were significantly decreased in powerlifters (p < 0.050). Powerlifters displayed decreased ROM in the Apley scratch test in both dominant (p = 0.015) and nondominant (p = 0.025) arms. However, knee extension angle was markedly improved in powerlifters (20.3 ± 7.3°) compared with controls (29.9 ± 6.2°; p < 0.001). Bench press and bench press variations accounted for 74.8% of all upper-body exercises, whereas back squat and deadlift accounted for 79.7% of all lower-body exercises in powerlifters' training programs. To determine whether existing ROM adaptations were seen in elite powerlifters, the powerlifting cohort was split into 3 groups based on Wilks score: <400 (low), 400-500 (intermediate), and >500 (high). GH ROM limitations were more pronounced in elite powerlifters (Wilks >500), who had more powerlifting experience (p = 0.048) and greater lean body mass (p = 0.040). Overall, powerlifters displayed decreased GH ROM, but increased hamstring ROM, after training programs that were heavily focused on the bench press, back squat, and deadlift.

An Evaluation of Agonist: Antagonist Strength Ratios and Posture Among Powerlifters.

Cutrufello, PT, Gadomski, SJ, and Ratamess, NA. An evaluation of agonist:antagonist strength ratios and posture among powerlifters. J Strength Cond Res 31(2): 298-304, 2017-Powerlifters routinely focus on 3 exercises: bench press, squat, and deadlift. This focus may predispose them to the development of muscle imbalances in either the upper or lower extremity which might also influence posture. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to examine the agonist:antagonist strength ratios and their relationship to postural measures among powerlifters. An ex post facto study design compared 15 male powerlifters (35.3 ± 13.7 years old) and 15 age-matched controls (34.9 ± 14.6 years old). Maximal isometric strength tests were conducted using handheld dynamometry. Posture was evaluated using pectoralis minor length, pelvic tilt, thoracic kyphosis, and lumbar lordosis. Strength imbalances were observed for shoulder horizontal adduction:abduction (2.57 ± 0.58 vs. 1.78 ± 0.28; p < 0.001) and knee flexion:extension (0.61 ± 0.15 vs. 0.50 ± 0.10; p = 0.033). Pectoralis minor length was significantly shorter among the powerlifters (6.1 ± 1.9 vs. 4.2 ± 1.4; p = 0.005); however, there was no statistical difference in thoracic kyphosis (37.7 ± 9.4 vs. 39.1 ± 10.9; p = 0.722), pelvic tilt (10.6 ± 3.6 vs. 11.3 ± 3.7; p = 0.622), or lumbar lordosis (25.0 ± 7.6 vs. 23.0 ± 8.4; p = 0.500) angles. Strength imbalances, including shoulder horizontal adduction:abduction and knee flexion:extension, and a shortened pectoralis minor may evolve as training adaptations among powerlifters, whereas thoracic kyphosis, pelvic tilt, and lumbar lordosis remain unchanged.

Hydration assessment among marathoners using urine specific gravity and bioelectrical impedance analysis.

The present study examined the relationship between urine specific gravity (Usg), body mass (BM) and bioelectrical impedance determined variables [total body water (TBW), per cent TBW and impedance values] before and after a marathon (n = 25 men; 10 women). A significant reduction in BM (pre: 71.2 ± 12.4 kg; post: 69.6 ± 12.0 kg; p < 0.001) and an increase in Usg (pre: 1.009 ± 0.007; post: 1.018 ± 0.009; p < 0.001) was observed post-race. TBW was not significantly decreased (pre: 42.7 ± 8.0 kg; post: 42.4 ± 7.7 kg) while per cent TBW significantly increased post-race (pre: 60.0 ± 3.9%; post: 60.8 ± 3.8%; p < 0.001). Impedance values were significantly greater post-race (pre: 3288 ± 482; post: 3416 ± 492 Ω; p < 0.001). There was no correlation between the change in Usg and the change in BM or any of the bioelectrical impedance determined variables. On average, BM, Usg and impedance values appear to express changes in hydration; however, the observed changes among these variables for a given individual appear to be inconsistent with one another.

The effect of l-citrulline and watermelon juice supplementation on anaerobic and aerobic exercise performance.

Citrulline has been proposed as an ergogenic aid, leading to an interest in watermelon given its high citrulline concentration. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of a single, pre-exercise dose of l-citrulline, watermelon juice, or a placebo on the total maximum number of repetitions completed over 5 sets, time to exhaustion, maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max), anaerobic threshold, and flow-mediated vasodilation. A randomised double-blind within-participants study design was used to examine these effects among 22 participants (n = 11 males). Supplementation included either a 7.5% sucrose drink containing 6 g of l-citrulline, 710 mL of watermelon juice (~1.0 g citrulline), or a 7.5% sucrose placebo drink. Supplementation was administered 1 or 2 h before exercise testing to investigate a timing effect. There was no significant effect between the three supplements for the total number of repetitions, time to exhaustion, VO2max, anaerobic threshold, or flow-mediated vasodilation. There was also no interaction observed relative to gender or supplement timing (P > 0.05). A single dose of l-citrulline or watermelon juice as a pre-exercise supplement appears to be ineffective in improving exercise performance; however, greater doses of l-citrulline have been shown to be safe and are currently left unexamined.

Small changes in lung function in runners with marathon-induced interstitial lung edema.

The purpose of this study was to assess lung function in runners with marathon-induced lung edema. Thirty-six (24 males) healthy subjects, 34 (SD 9) years old, body mass index 23.7 (2.6) kg/m(2) had posterior/anterior (PA) radiographs taken 1 day before and 21 (6) minutes post marathon finish. Pulmonary function was performed 1-3 weeks before and 73 (27) minutes post finish. The PA radiographs were viewed together, as a set, and evaluated by two experienced readers separately who were blinded as to time the images were obtained. Radiographs were scored for edema based on four different radiological characteristics such that the summed scores for any runner could range from 0 (no edema) to a maximum of 8 (severe interstitial edema). Overall, the mean edema score increased significantly from 0.2 to 1.0 units (P < 0.01), and from 0.0 to 2.9 units post exercise in the six subjects that were edema positive (P = 0.03). Despite a 2% decrease in forced vital capacity (FVC, P = 0.024) and a 12% decrease in alveolar-membrane diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide (DmCO, P = 0.01), there was no relation between the change in the edema score and the change in DmCO or FVC. In conclusion, (1) mild pulmonary edema occurs in at least 17% of subjects and that changes in pulmonary function cannot predict the occurrence or severity of edema, (2) lung edema is of minimal physiological significance as marathon performance is unaffected, exercise-induced arterial hypoxemia is unlikely, and postexercise pulmonary function changes are mild.

The effect of acute fluid consumption following exercise-induced fluid loss on hydration status, percent body fat, and minimum wrestling weight in wrestlers.

Acute fluid consumption (approximately 1 L) has been shown to reduce urine specific gravity (Usg) among subjects after an overnight fast, yet it is unknown if Usg may be reduced among subjects who have experienced exercise-induced fluid loss. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of acute fluid consumption on Usg, body mass, percent body fat (%BF), and minimum wrestling weight (MWW) following an exercise-induced fluid loss protocol. National Collegiate Athletic Association coaches' perceptions of the weight certification program (WCP) were also evaluated. Twelve men wrestlers (19.8 ± 1.14 years) were tested prepractice (PRE), postpractice (POST), and 1 hour after consuming 1 L of water (PFC). Percent body fat was measured by skinfolds (SF), air displacement plethysmography (ADP), and multifrequency and leg-to-leg bioelectrical impedance analysis to calculate MWW. Urine specific gravity measurements significantly increased above PRE (1.013 ± 0.006) at the POST (1.019 ± 0.007; p = 0.017) and PFC (1.022 ± 0.008; p = 0.025) assessments; however, POST and PFC were not significantly different (p = 0.978) from one another. The %BF values were similar (p > 0.05) at each assessment point when using SF and ADP. When compared with PRE, MWW significantly reduced at the POST assessment when using SF (67.2 ± 8.4 vs. 65.7 ± 8.2 kg; p < 0.001) and ADP (66.6 ± 9.1 vs. 64.8 ± 9.0 kg; p = 0.001), reflecting the reduction in body mass observed after exercise. Forty-seven National Collegiate Athletic Association coaches completed the questionnaire and 2 central themes emerged: (a) concerns with the 1.5% weight loss plan and (b) wrestlers using strategies in an attempt to circumvent the WCP. Exercise-induced fluid loss followed by acute fluid consumption equal to 1 L was ineffective in reducing Usg.

The effect of acute fluid consumption and hydration status on percent body fat and minimum wrestling weight.

The weight certification program for wrestling requires a urine-specific gravity (USG) <1.020. However, the effect of acute rehydration on percent body fat (%BF) and minimum wrestling weight (MWW) is largely unknown. We examined the effect of acute fluid consumption on %BF and MWW. Twenty-five male subjects (18-22 years) were tested in a dehydrated state (USG > 1.020; DEH), 1 hour after rehydration (USG < 1.020; REH), and on a separate day in a hydrated state (USG < 1.020; HYD) which served as the criterion. Percent body fat was determined using skinfolds (SF), air displacement plethysmography (ADP), leg-to-leg bioelectrical impedance analysis (LBIA), and multifrequency bioelectrical impedance analysis (MBIA). Regardless of hydration state, %BF values were not significantly different when using SF (DEH = 13.35 ± 4.03%; REH = 13.41 ± 3.99%; HYD = 13.47 ± 4.31%; p = 0.693) or ADP (DEH = 15.68 ± 4.69%; REH = 16.19 ± 4.57%; HYD = 15.88 ± 4.72%; p = 0.145). The MWW after fluid consumption (REH) was similar to the criterion (HYD) when using SF (REH = 72.04 ± 8.25 kg; HYD = 72.23 ± 8.15 kg; p = 1.000) and ADP (REH = 70.38 ± 8.93 kg; HYD = 70.81 ± 8.50 kg; p = 0.177) methods. Conversely, hydration state had a significant impact on LBIA (p = 0.011) and MBIA (p < 0.001) %BF values resulting in reduced MWWs. When using the SF and ADP methods to assess %BF, modest amounts of water (∼1 L) restored euhydration (<1.020) without negatively affecting %BF or MWW. Therefore, acute fluid consumption (∼1 L) may offer a safe alternative in which the weight certification program can be expedited.

Small things make a big difference: particulate matter and exercise.

The increased risk of morbidity and mortality among adults and children with pre-existing cardiovascular or respiratory illness from emission-derived particulate matter (PM) is well documented. However, the detrimental effects of PM inhalation on the exercising, healthy population is still in question. This review will focus on the acute and chronic responses to PM inhalation during exercise and how PM exposure influences exercise performance. The smaller ultrafine PM (<0.01 µm aerodynamic diameter) appears to have the most severe health consequences compared with the larger coarse PM (2.5 < PM <10 µm aerodynamic diameter). While the response to PM inhalation may affect those with a pre-existing condition, the healthy population is not immune to the effects of PM inhalation, especially during exercise. This population, including the competitive athlete, is susceptible to pulmonary inflammation, decreased lung function (both acute and chronic in nature), the increased risk of asthma, vascular endothelial dysfunction, mild elevations in pulmonary artery pressure and diminished exercise performance. PM exposure is usually associated with vehicular traffic, but other sources of PM, including small engines from lawn and garden equipment, cigarette smoke, wood smoke and cooking, may also impair health and performance. The physiological effects of PM are dependent on the source of PM, various environmental factors, physical attributes and nature of exercise. There are a number of measures an athlete can take to reduce exposure to PM, as well as the deleterious effects that result from the inevitable exposure to PM. Considering the acute and chronic physiological responses to PM inhalation, individuals living and exercising in urban areas in close proximity to major roadways should consider ambient air pollution levels (in particular, PM and ozone) prior to engaging in vigorous exercise, and those exposed to PM through other sources may need to make lifestyle alterations to avoid the deleterious effects of PM inhalation. Although it is clear that PM exposure is detrimental to healthy individuals engaging in exercise, further research is necessary to better understand the role of PM on athlete health and performance, as well as measures that can attenuate the harmful effects of PM.

Inhaled whole exhaust and its effect on exercise performance and vascular function.

CONTEXT: Internal combustion engines are a major source of particulate matter (PM) which has been shown to result in vasoconstriction, yet no present study to our knowledge has investigated the effect of exhaust emissions on both exercise performance and the vasculature. OBJECTIVE: To examine the effect of freshly generated whole exhaust on exercise performance, pulmonary arterial pressure (PP), and flow-mediated vasodilation (FMD) of the brachial artery. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Sixteen male, collegiate athletes (age: 20.8±1.28 years) were randomly assigned to submaximal exercise for 20 min followed by a 6 min maximal work accumulation exercise test in either high PM (HPM) or low PM (LPM) conditions on two consecutive days. After a 7-day washout period, subjects completed identical exercise trials in the alternate condition. HPM conditions were generated from a 4-cycle gasoline engine. The participants' PP and FMD were assessed before and after each exercise trial by tricuspid regurgitant velocity and brachial artery imaging, respectively. RESULTS: Total work (LPM: 108.0±14.8 kJ; HPM: 104.9±15.2 kJ, p=0.019) and FMD (LPM: 8.17±6.41%; HPM: 6.59±2.53%; p=0.034) significantly decreased in HPM while PP was significantly increased (LPM: 16.9±1.13 mmHg; HPM: 17.9±1.70 mmHg; p=0.004). A significant correlation was identified between the change in exercise performance and the change in FMD (r=0.494; p=0.026) after the first HPM trial. CONCLUSION: Exercise performance declined in HPM conditions in part due to impaired vasodilation in the peripheral vasculature.

Evaluation of the BOD POD and leg-to-leg bioelectrical impedance analysis for estimating percent body fat in National Collegiate Athletic Association Division III collegiate wrestlers.

The purpose of this study was to compare percent body fat (%BF) estimated by air displacement plethysmography (ADP) and leg-to-leg bioelectrical impedance analysis (LBIA) with hydrostatic weighing (HW) in a group (n = 25) of NCAA Division III collegiate wrestlers. Body composition was assessed during the preseason wrestling weight certification program (WCP) using the NCAA approved methods (HW, 3-site skinfold [SF], and ADP) and LBIA, which is currently an unaccepted method of assessment. A urine specific gravity less than 1.020, measured by refractometry, was required before all testing. Each subject had all of the assessments performed on the same day. LBIA measurements (Athletic mode) were determined using a Tanita body fat analyzer (model TBF-300A). Hydrostatic weighing, corrected for residual lung volume, was used as the criterion measurement. The %BF data (mean +/- SD) were LBIA (12.3 +/- 4.6), ADP (13.8 +/- 6.3), SF (14.2 +/- 5.3), and HW (14.5 +/- 6.0). %BF estimated by LBIA was significantly (p < 0.01) smaller than HW and SF. There were no significant differences in body density or %BF estimated by ADP, SF, and HW. All methods showed significant correlations (r = 0.80-0.96; p < 0.01) with HW. The standard errors of estimate (SEE) for %BF were 1.68, 1.87, and 3.60%; pure errors (PE) were 1.88, 1.94, and 4.16% (ADP, SF, and LBIA, respectively). Bland-Atman plots for %BF demonstrated no systematic bias for ADP, SF, and LBIA when compared with HW. These preliminary findings support the use of ADP and SF for estimating %BF during the NCAA WCP in Division III wrestlers. LBIA, which consistently underestimated %BF, is not supported by these data as a valid assessment method for this athletic group.