A Ready Force: The U.S. Army Certified Registered Nurse Anesthetist Readiness Model.

The U.S. was at war for nearly two decades, supporting unprecedented survival on the battlefield. As the nation pivots to a relative peace, it is critical that U.S. Army certified registered nurse anesthetist (CRNA) leaders mitigate the loss of lessons learned and prepare future Army CRNAs for war. This article describes the U.S. Army CRNA Readiness Model that incorporates the knowledge, skills, and abilities required to sustain readiness. This model will provide U.S. Army nursing leaders with the framework to implement and evaluate solider readiness to provide anesthesia in operational environments.

Future Trends in Trauma Care: Through the Lens of the Wounded How Lessons from the Battlefield May Be Used at Home.

The coordinated terrorist attacks of 2001 thrust the United States and its allies to war. Through an evolving battlefield, the paradigm of large fixed medical facilities advanced to become nimble surgical and resuscitative platforms, able to provide care far forward. Innovations like tactical combat casualty care, evacuation, fresh whole-blood administration, freeze-dried plasma, and forward surgical care military medicine helped reduce combat mortality to its lowest levels in history. Through the account of a young wounded marine wounded in Iraq, this article examines how innovations on the battlefield saved casualties and explores how these techniques may be applied at home.

The Teamwork Model: Proposing a Model for Studying Interprofessional Healthcare Teams.

This article was migrated. The article was marked as recommended. Patient safety is a preeminent healthcare concern in modern medicine. In the years since To Err is Human, researchers have found that the number of preventable deaths far exceeds 98,000; more accurately, 400,000 patients die each year from preventable healthcare errors. To combat the evolving patient safety crisis, a variety of organizations from Institute of Medicine to World Health Organization have called for the development of interprofessional healthcare teams. Interprofessional healthcare teams and teamwork have been a topic of discussion for over 40 years. And while some Interprofessional healthcare teams have been shown to be beneficial in some settings the success of these teams is not universal nor achieved in all healthcare settings. In short, research has found that interprofessional healthcare teams both improve and impede patient care. Building on this contradictions of interprofessional healthcare teams and teamwork, we present a model for the conceptualization of teamwork that could be readily applied to clinical experiences. This model is informed by the interprofessional healthcare team literature and relevant theories, and we believe will enable us to examine authentic interprofessional healthcare team interactions and identify moments when team interactions were breaking down, and reasons why those breakdowns were happening.

Operational Readiness: Redesigning Advanced Practice Registered Nurse (APRN) Curriculum for an Evolving Battlefield.

INTRODUCTION: The Global War on Terror and the ensuing Overseas Contingency Operations has rapidly transformed the U.S. military's strategic philosophy for warfare. The paradigm shift to unconventional warfare has forced military medicine to adapt with the rapidly evolving battle space. To this end, large fixed facility hospitals are being replaced with highly mobile and austere medical platforms that serve farther forward. The transition in operational health care has challenged the role of all health care team members.Through the evolution of the modern battlefield, nursing roles have grown and expanded beyond the traditional roles and peacetime practice. Nurses are seeing greater autonomy and scope of practice in operational settings while caring for patient pathologies that are often different than at home. The expansion of practice extends beyond the registered nurse at the bedside to the Advanced Practice Registered Nurse (APRN) that serves in the provider role. Through anecdotal reports, and a growing body of literature, that APRN operational practice is different than in the traditional health care setting. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Although a variety of organizations have codified knowledge, skills and attitudes (KSAs) relevant to operational practice, no formal APRN operational curriculum currently exists. Using an adaptation of Kern's Six-Step Model of curriculum design, we describe a curriculum development process used to improve and focus educational experiences to better prepare APRNs for evolving operational roles. RESULTS: Through deliberate approaches the GSN has reimagined its operational readiness curriculum for the preparation of the military APRN on the evolving battlefield. The GSN has operationalized APRN operational readiness through the integration of operationally relevant curriculum designed around interprofessional education experiences. Through this curricular design, GSN APRN students are provided with operationally relevant experiences in the context of authentic military scenarios. Through these encounters, we believe, allows our students to successfully develop the clinical, operational and teamwork skills to successfully perform care in austere and operational settings. CONCLUSIONS: This manuscript describes a novel approach to provide operational readiness education to military APRN students. Through an evaluation of the current literature, expert reports and information of the current operational requirements, the USU GSN has developed a model and curricula for APRN operational readiness that lie beyond the traditional skills in the peacetime setting. Through this plan of instruction, USU GSN APRN students will have the requisite skills to meet the evolving operational needs of the Department of Defense.

Expeditionary Resuscitation Surgical Team: The US Army's Initiative to Provide Damage Control Resuscitation and Surgery to Forces in Austere Settings.

Improvements in surgical care on the battlefield have contributed to reduced morbidity and mortality in wounded Servicemembers. 1 Point-of-injury care and early surgical intervention, along with improved personal protective equipment, have produced the lowest casualty statistics in modern warfare, resulting in improved force strength, morale, and social acceptance of conflict. It is undeniable that point-of-care injury, followed by early resuscitation and damage control surgery, saves lives on the battlefield. The US Army's Expeditionary Resuscitation Surgical Team (ERST) is a highly mobile, interprofessional medical team that can perform damage control resuscitation and surgery in austere locations. Its configuration and capabilities vary; however, in general, a typical surgical element can perform one major surgery and one minor surgery without resupply. The critical care element can provide prolonged holding in garrison, but this diminishes in the austere setting with complex and acutely injured patients.

Wet or Dry? A Review of Intravenous Fluid Administration in Anesthesia Practice.

Fluid therapy has dramatically changed since its early inception nearly 200 years ago. Administration of intravenous fluid (IVF) has evolved from a "drip" technique to the algorithmic approach of the anesthetic fluid plan, and is now moving toward Goal-Directed Fluid Therapy. As the science and culture of fluid management evolves, anesthetists must remain focused on "why" anesthetic fluid matters. The purpose of IVF administration is to support tissue perfusion and maintain euvolemia. As the evidence underlying perioperative practice matures and the science of anesthesia races to meet the evolving demands of surgery, anesthetists must align knowledge generation with the individualized needs of the patient. The future of perioperative IVF therapy will be patient centric. In the near future, anesthetists will know the patient's blood volume before, during, and after the surgery. They will no longer depend on inaccurate surrogates to estimate, but have the knowledge to titrate fluids to maintain a zero balance. Practice will move away from algorithms and toward individualized fluid administration based on reproducible end points. Decisions about fluid selection, timing, and volume will be driven by patient- and case-specific requirements as specific as when a patient is typed and crossed for blood transfusion. The greatest challenge for the anesthetist in perioperative fluid therapy is to move beyond the dogmatic practices of the past and toward fluid therapy guided by patient centric evidence.

Military Interprofessional Health Care Teams: How USU is Working to Harness the Power of Collaboration.

Despite efforts to increase patient safety, hundreds of thousands of lives are lost each year to preventable health care errors. The Institute of Medicine and other organizations have recommended that facilitating effective interprofessional health care team work can help address this problem. While the concept of interprofessional health care teams is known, understanding and organizing effective team performance have proven to be elusive goals. Although considerable research has been conducted in the civilian sector, scholars have yet to extend research to the military context. Indeed, delivering the highest caliber of health care to our service men and women is vitally important. This commentary describes a new initiative as the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences aimed at researching the characteristics of successful military interprofessional teams and why those characteristics are important. It also describes the interprofessional education initiative that Uniformed Services University is launching to help optimize U.S. military health care.

A Theoretical Mathematical Model to Estimate Blood Volume in Clinical Practice.

Perioperative intravenous (IV) fluid management is controversial. Fluid therapy is guided by inaccurate algorithms and changes in the patient's vital signs that are nonspecific for changes to the patient's blood volume (BV). Anesthetic agents, patient comorbidities, and surgical techniques interact and further confound clinical assessment of volume status. Through adaptation of existing acute normovolemic hemodilution algorithms, it may be possible to predict patient's BV by measuring hematocrit (HcT) before and after hemodilution. Our proposed mathematical model requires the following four data points to estimate a patient's total BV: ideal BV, baseline HcT, a known fluid bolus (FB), and a second HcT following the FB. To test our method, we obtained 10 ideal and 10 actual subject BV data measures from 9 unique subjects derived from a commercially used Food and Drug Administration-approved, semi-automated, BV analyzer. With these data, we calculated the theoretical BV change following a FB. Using the four required data points, we predicted BVs (BVp) and compared our predictions with the actual BV (BVa) measures provided by the data set. The BVp calculated using our model highly correlated with the BVa provided by the BV analyzer data set (df = 8, r = .99). Our calculations suggest that, with accurate HcT measurement, this method shows promise for the identification of abnormal BV states such as hyper- and hypovolemia and may prove to be a reliable method for titrating IV fluid.

Management of trauma-induced coagulopathy: trends and practices.

Nearly one-fourth of all trauma admissions present in varying degrees of coagulopathy. According to a US study, 40% of trauma fatalities are due to hemorrhage and hemorrhagic shock, and nearly all patients who are alive when they reach the hospital are coagulopathic when they die. Once coagulopathy develops, patient morbidity drastically increases. Because of the clinical significance of trauma-induced coagulopathy, management strategies to reduce the morbidity and mortality have recently become of interest. This article will review the pathology of trauma-induced coagulopathy and current trends in management, as well as closely examine the data surrounding the use of recombinant factor VII for the treatment of trauma-induced coagulopathy.

Hemodynamic measurement in the operating room: a review of conventional measures to identify hypovolemia.

Direct measurement of physiologic systems is often impractical. To overcome these obstacles, indirect physiologic measures have been developed. Indirect physiologic measures such as heart rate, blood pressure, and many others are surrogates that are believed to accurately represent the function of a physiologic system. Although a powerful tool, physiologic measurement has several potential limitations and errors. This can result in erroneous instrument data. For that reason, it is the responsibility of the clinician to question and interpret monitor output and to ultimately correctly assess validity of the measurement. This article reviews commonly used intraoperative monitoring techniques and discusses their potential limitations as they relate to hypovolemia and hemorrhagic shock.

Factor VIIa for correction of traumatic coagulopathy.

INTRODUCTION: Activated factor VIIa (FVIIa) was developed to treat hemophiliacs with high-titer antibodies to factor VIII. FVIIa initiates thrombin formation by binding with exposed tissue factor. Anecdotal reports have described the utility of FVIIa in correcting coagulopathy from trauma, but no large series exists. We present our experience with 81 coagulopathic trauma patients treated using FVIIa in years 2001-2003, compared with "control" patients matched from the trauma registry from the same time period. METHODS: Use of FVIIa was restricted to active hemorrhage with clinical coagulopathy. We recorded the cause of coagulopathy, dose of FVIIa administered, effect on clinical coagulation, pertinent laboratory values, length of stay, number and type of blood products administered, and patient outcome. For the same time period we also examined outcomes in coagulopathic patients who did not receive FVIIa. RESULTS: Causes of coagulopathy were diverse, and included acute traumatic hemorrhage (46 patients), traumatic brain injury (20), warfarin use (9), congenital Factor VII deficiency (2), and other acquired hematologic defects (4). Coagulopathy was reversed in 61/81 cases (75%), with an associated reduction in PT from 19.6 to 10.8 (p=0.000018). 34 patients (42%) survived to hospital discharge (20/46 traumatic hemorrhage, 5/20 TBI, 4/9 on warfarin, 2/2 factor deficient, 3/4 other). Patients died from irreversible shock, multiple organ system failure, or traumatic brain injury. FVIIa patients had a higher mortality than coagulopathic controls matched by specific anatomic injuries, admission lactate value, and predicted probability of survival. Only a group identified by all three characteristics had a similar mortality to the FVIIa cohort, but the number of patients that could be matched this way was too small to be meaningful. CONCLUSION: FVIIa therapy lead to an immediate reduction in coagulopathic hemorrhage in most cases, accompanied by a significant improvement in laboratory measures. Application of FVIIa as a therapy of last resort makes the identification of equivalent control patients difficult. Use of FVIIa should be considered for any patient with coagulopathic hemorrhage in which surgically-accessible bleeding has been controlled. Prospective trials of FVIIa in patients with traumatic coagulopathy are strongly indicated, and should focus on appropriate patient selection and the dose and timing of therapy.