Polyethyleneimine/polyethylene glycol-conjugated gold nanoparticles as nanoscale positive/negative controls in nanotoxicology: testing in frog embryo teratogenesis assay-Xenopus and mammalian tissue culture system.

Despite the great potential of using positively charged gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) in nanomedicine, no systematic studies have been reported on their synthesis optimization or colloidal stability under physiological conditions until a group at the National Institute of Standards and Technology recently succeeded in producing remarkably stable polyethyleneimine (PEI)-coated AuNPs (Au-PEI). This improved version of Au-PEI (Au-PEI25kB) has increased the demand for toxicity and teratogenicity information for applications in nanomedicine and nanotoxicology. In vitro assays for Au-PEI25kB in various cell lines showed substantial active cytotoxicity. For advanced toxicity research, the frog embryo teratogenesis assay-Xenopus (FETAX) method was employed in this study. We observed that positively-charged Au-PEI25kB exhibited significant toxicity and teratogenicity, whereas polyethylene glycol conjugated AuNPs (Au-PEG) used as comparable negative controls did not. There is a characteristic avidity of Au-PEI25kB for the jelly coat, the chorionic envelope (also known as vitelline membrane) and the cytoplasmic membrane, as well as a barrier effect of the chorionic envelope observed with Au-PEG. To circumvent these characteristics, an injection-mediated FETAX approach was utilized. Like treatment with the FETAX method, the injection of Au-PEI25kB severely impaired embryo development. Notably, the survival/concentration curve that was steep when the standard FETAX approach was employed became gradual in the injection-mediated FETAX. These results suggest that Au-PEI25kB may be a good candidate as a nanoscale positive control material for nanoparticle analysis in toxicology and teratology.

Wnt4 and ephrinB2 instruct apical constriction via Dishevelled and non-canonical signaling.

Apical constriction is a cell shape change critical to vertebrate neural tube closure, and the contractile force required for this process is generated by actin-myosin networks. The signaling cue that instructs this process has remained elusive. Here, we identify Wnt4 and the transmembrane ephrinB2 protein as playing an instructive role in neural tube closure as members of a signaling complex we termed WERDS (Wnt4, EphrinB2, Ror2, Dishevelled (Dsh2), and Shroom3). Disruption of function or interaction among members of the WERDS complex results in defects of apical constriction and neural tube closure. The mechanism of action involves an interaction of ephrinB2 with the Dsh2 scaffold protein that enhances the formation of the WERDS complex, which in turn, activates Rho-associated kinase to induce apical constriction. Moreover, the ephrinB2/Dsh2 interaction promotes non-canonical Wnt signaling and shows how cross-talk between two major signal transduction pathways, Eph/ephrin and Wnt, coordinate morphogenesis of the neural tube.

Zic5 stabilizes Gli3 via a non-transcriptional mechanism during retinal development.

The Zic family of zinc finger transcription factors plays a critical role in multiple developmental processes. Using loss-of-function studies, we find that Zic5 is important for the differentiation of retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE) and the rod photoreceptor layer through suppressing Hedgehog (Hh) signaling. Further, Zic5 interacts with the critical Hh signaling molecule, Gli3, through the zinc finger domains of both proteins. This Zic5-Gli3 interaction disrupts Gli3/Gli3 homodimerization, resulting in Gli3 protein stabilization via a reduction in Gli3 ubiquitination. During embryonic Hh signaling, the activator form of Gli is normally converted to a repressor form through proteosome-mediated processing of Gli3, and the ratio of Gli3 repressor to full-length (activator) form of Gli3 determines the Gli3 repressor output required for normal eye development. Our results suggest Zic5 is a critical player in regulating Gli3 stability for the proper differentiation of RPE and rod photoreceptor layer during Xenopus eye development.

Male infertility-associated Ccdc108 regulates multiciliogenesis via the intraflagellar transport machinery.

Motile cilia on the cell surface generate movement and directional fluid flow that is crucial for various biological processes. Dysfunction of these cilia causes human diseases such as sinopulmonary disease and infertility. Here, we show that Ccdc108, a protein linked to male infertility, has an evolutionarily conserved requirement in motile multiciliation. Using Xenopus laevis embryos, Ccdc108 is shown to be required for the migration and docking of basal bodies to the apical membrane in epidermal multiciliated cells (MCCs). We demonstrate that Ccdc108 interacts with the IFT-B complex, and the ciliation requirement for Ift74 overlaps with Ccdc108 in MCCs. Both Ccdc108 and IFT-B proteins localize to migrating centrioles, basal bodies, and cilia in MCCs. Importantly, Ccdc108 governs the centriolar recruitment of IFT while IFT licenses the targeting of Ccdc108 to the cilium. Moreover, Ccdc108 is required for the centriolar recruitment of Drg1 and activated RhoA, factors that help establish the apical actin network in MCCs. Together, our studies indicate that Ccdc108 and IFT-B complex components cooperate in multiciliogenesis.

CEP97 phosphorylation by Dyrk1a is critical for centriole separation during multiciliogenesis.

Proper cilia formation in multiciliated cells (MCCs) is necessary for appropriate embryonic development and homeostasis. Multicilia share many structural characteristics with monocilia and primary cilia, but there are still significant gaps in our understanding of the regulation of multiciliogenesis. Using the Xenopus embryo, we show that CEP97, which is known as a negative regulator of primary cilia formation, interacts with dual specificity tyrosine phosphorylation regulated kinase 1A (Dyrk1a) to modulate multiciliogenesis. We show that Dyrk1a phosphorylates CEP97, which in turn promotes the recruitment of Polo-like kinase 1 (Plk1), which is a critical regulator of MCC maturation that functions to enhance centriole disengagement in cooperation with the enzyme Separase. Knockdown of either CEP97 or Dyrk1a disrupts cilia formation and centriole disengagement in MCCs, but this defect is rescued by overexpression of Separase. Thus, our study reveals that Dyrk1a and CEP97 coordinate with Plk1 to promote Separase function to properly form multicilia in vertebrate MCCs.

Characterization of a Compound Heterozygous SLC2A9 Mutation That Causes Hypouricemia.

Renal hypouricemia is a rare genetic disorder. Hypouricemia can present as renal stones or exercise-induced acute renal failure, but most cases are asymptomatic. Our previous study showed that two recessive variants of SLC22A12 (p.Trp258*, pArg90His) were identified in 90% of the hypouricemia patients from two independent cohorts: the Korean genome and epidemiology study (KoGES) and the Korean Cancer Prevention Study (KCPS-II). In this work, we investigate the genetic causes of hypouricemia in the rest of the 10% of unsolved cases. We found a novel non-synonymous mutation of SLC2A9 (voltage-sensitive uric acid transporter) in the whole-exome sequencing (WES) results. Molecular dynamics prediction suggests that the novel mutation p.Met126Val in SLCA9b (p.Met155Val in SLC2A9a) hinders uric acid transport through a defect of the outward open geometry. Molecular analysis using Xenopus oocytes confirmed that the p.Met126Val mutation significantly reduced uric acid transport but does not affect the SLC2A9 protein expression level. Our results will shed light on a better understanding of SLC2A9-mediated uric acid transport and the development of a uric acid-lowering agent.

Rab11fip5 regulates telencephalon development via ephrinB1 recycling.

Rab11 family-interacting protein 5 (Rab11fip5) is an adaptor protein that binds to the small GTPase Rab11, which has an important function in endosome recycling and trafficking of cellular proteins to the plasma membrane. Rab11fip5 is involved in many cellular processes, such as cytoskeleton rearrangement, iron uptake and exocytosis in neuroendocrine cells, and is also known as a candidate gene for autism-spectrum disorder. However, the role of Rab11fip5 during early embryonic development is not clearly understood. In this study, we identified Rab11fip5 as a protein that interacts with ephrinB1, a transmembrane ligand for Eph receptors. The PDZ binding motif in ephrinB1 and the Rab-binding domain in Rab11fip5 are necessary for their interaction in a complex. EphrinB1 and Rab11fip5 display overlapping expression in the telencephalon of developing amphibian embryos. The loss of Rab11fip5 function causes a reduction in telencephalon size and a decrease in the expression level of ephrinB1. Moreover, morpholino oligonucleotide-mediated knockdown of Rab11fip5 decreases cell proliferation in the telencephalon. The overexpression of ephrinB1 rescues these defects, suggesting that ephrinB1 recycling by the Rab11/Rab11fip5 complex is crucial for proper telencephalon development.

Sprouty2 regulates positioning of retinal progenitors through suppressing the Ras/Raf/MAPK pathway.

Sproutys are negative regulators of the Ras/Raf/MAPK signaling pathway and involved in regulation of organogenesis, differentiation, cell migration and proliferation. Although the function of Sproutys have been extensively studied during embryonic development, their role and mode of action during eye formation in vertebrate embryonic development is still unknown. Here we show that Xenopus sprouty2 is expressed in the optic vesicle at late neurula stage and knockdown of Sprouty2 prevents retinal progenitors from populating the retina, which in turn gives rise to small eyes. In the absence of Sprouty2, progenitor cell population of the retina can be restored by blocking the MAPK signaling pathway through overexpression of DN-Ras or DN-Raf. In contrast, activation of the MAPK pathway through overexpression of a constitutively active form of c-Raf (ca-Raf) inhibits progenitor population of the retina, similar to the Sprouty2 loss-of-function phenotype. Moreover, we present evidence that the retinal defect observed in Sprouty2 morphants is attributed to the failure of proper movement of retinal progenitors into the optic vesicle, rather than an effect on progenitor cell survival. These results suggest that Sprouty2 is required for the positioning of retinal progenitors within the optic vesicle through suppressing Ras/Raf/MAPK signaling pathway.

Developmentally regulated GTP-binding protein 1 modulates ciliogenesis via an interaction with Dishevelled.

Cilia are critical for proper embryonic development and maintaining homeostasis. Although extensively studied, there are still significant gaps regarding the proteins involved in regulating ciliogenesis. Using the Xenopus laevis embryo, we show that Dishevelled (Dvl), a key Wnt signaling scaffold that is critical to proper ciliogenesis, interacts with Drg1 (developmentally regulated GTP-binding protein 1). The loss of Drg1 or disruption of the interaction with Dvl reduces the length and number of cilia and displays defects in basal body migration and docking to the apical surface of multiciliated cells (MCCs). Moreover, Drg1 morphants display abnormal rotational polarity of basal bodies and a decrease in apical actin and RhoA activity that can be attributed to disruption of the protein complex between Dvl and Daam1, as well as between Daam1 and RhoA. These results support the concept that the Drg1-Dvl interaction regulates apical actin polymerization and stability in MCCs. Thus, Drg1 is a newly identified partner of Dvl in regulating ciliogenesis.

TBC1d24-ephrinB2 interaction regulates contact inhibition of locomotion in neural crest cell migration.

Although Eph-ephrin signalling has been implicated in the migration of cranial neural crest (CNC) cells, it is still unclear how ephrinB transduces signals regulating this event. We provide evidence that TBC1d24, a putative Rab35-GTPase activating protein (Rab35 GAP), complexes with ephrinB2 via the scaffold Dishevelled (Dsh) and mediates a signal affecting contact inhibition of locomotion (CIL) in CNC cells. Moreover, we found that, in migrating CNC, the interaction between ephrinB2 and TBC1d24 negatively regulates E-cadherin recycling in these cells via Rab35. Upon engagement of the cognate Eph receptor, ephrinB2 is tyrosine phosphorylated, which disrupts the ephrinB2/Dsh/TBC1d24 complex. The dissolution of this complex leads to increasing E-cadherin levels at the plasma membrane, resulting in loss of CIL and disrupted CNC migration. Our results indicate that TBC1d24 is a critical player in ephrinB2 control of CNC cell migration via CIL.

A frog's view of EphrinB signaling.

Cell-cell and cell-substrate adhesion are essential to the proper formation and maintenance of tissue patterns during development, and deregulation of these processes can lead to invasion and metastasis of cancer cells. Cell surface adhesion and signaling molecules are key players in both normal development and cancer progression. One set of cell surface proteins, the Eph receptor tyrosine kinases and their membrane-bound ligands, ephrins, are significant regulators of these processes. During embryonic development, the Eph/ephrin signaling system is involved in cell-cell contact events that result in cell sorting and boundary formation between receptor and ligand bearing cells. When migrating cells that display the membrane bound ligands or receptors come in contact with cells bearing the cognate partner, the response may be adhesion or repulsion, ultimately leading to the proper positioning of these cells. During cancer progression, the signaling between these receptor/ligand pairs is often deregulated, leading to increased invasion and metastasis. To gain mechanistic insight into the pathways that mediate Eph receptor and ephrin signaling we have relied upon a very tractable system, the frog Xenopus. This model system has proven to be extremely versatile, and represents a relatively quick and manipulable system to explore signaling events and the in vivo processes affected by these signals.

Neural transcription factors bias cleavage stage blastomeres to give rise to neural ectoderm.

The decision by embryonic ectoderm to give rise to epidermal versus neural derivatives is the result of signaling events during blastula and gastrula stages. However, there also is evidence in Xenopus that cleavage stage blastomeres contain maternally derived molecules that bias them toward a neural fate. We used a blastomere explant culture assay to test whether maternally deposited transcription factors bias 16-cell blastomere precursors of epidermal or neural ectoderm to express early zygotic neural genes in the absence of gastrulation interactions or exogenously supplied signaling factors. We found that Foxd4l1, Zic2, Gmnn, and Sox11 each induced explants made from ventral, epidermis-producing blastomeres to express early neural genes, and that at least some of the Foxd4l1 and Zic2 activities are required at cleavage stages. Similarly, providing extra Foxd4l1 or Zic2 to explants made from dorsal, neural plate-producing blastomeres significantly increased the expression of early neural genes, whereas knocking down either significantly reduced them. These results show that maternally delivered transcription factors bias cleavage stage blastomeres to a neural fate. We demonstrate that mouse and human homologs of Foxd4l1 have similar functional domains compared to the frog protein, as well as conserved transcriptional activities when expressed in Xenopus embryos and blastomere explants. genesis 54:334-349, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Early steps in primary cilium assembly require EHD1/EHD3-dependent ciliary vesicle formation.

Membrane association with mother centriole (M-centriole) distal appendages is critical for ciliogenesis initiation. How the Rab GTPase Rab11-Rab8 cascade functions in early ciliary membrane assembly is unknown. Here, we show that the membrane shaping proteins EHD1 and EHD3, in association with the Rab11-Rab8 cascade, function in early ciliogenesis. EHD1 and EHD3 localize to preciliary membranes and the ciliary pocket. EHD-dependent membrane tubulation is essential for ciliary vesicle formation from smaller distal appendage vesicles (DAVs). Importantly, this step functions in M-centriole to basal body transformation and recruitment of transition zone proteins and IFT20. SNAP29, a SNARE membrane fusion regulator and EHD1-binding protein, is also required for DAV-mediated ciliary vesicle assembly. Interestingly, only after ciliary vesicle assembly is Rab8 activated for ciliary growth. Our studies uncover molecular mechanisms informing a previously uncharacterized ciliogenesis step, whereby EHD1 and EHD3 reorganize the M-centriole and associated DAVs before coordinated ciliary membrane and axoneme growth.

EphrinB1 interacts with CNK1 and promotes cell migration through c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) activation.

The Eph receptors and their membrane-bound ligands, ephrins, play important roles in various biological processes such as cell adhesion and movement. The transmembrane ephrinBs transduce reverse signaling in a tyrosine phosphorylation-dependent or -independent, as well as PDZ-dependent manner. Here, we show that ephrinB1 interacts with Connector Enhancer of KSR1 (CNK1) in an EphB receptor-independent manner. In cultured cells, cotransfection of ephrinB1 with CNK1 increases JNK phosphorylation. EphrinB1/CNK1-mediated JNK activation is reduced by overexpression of dominant-negative RhoA. Overexpression of CNK1 alone is sufficient for activation of RhoA; however, both ephrinB1 and CNK1 are required for JNK phosphorylation. Co-immunoprecipitation data showed that ephrinB1 and CNK1 act as scaffold proteins that connect RhoA and JNK signaling components, such as p115RhoGEF and MKK4. Furthermore, adhesion to fibronectin or active Src overexpression increases ephrinB1/CNK1 binding, whereas blocking Src activity by a pharmacological inhibitor decreases not only ephrinB1/CNK1 binding, but also JNK activation. EphrinB1 overexpression increases cell motility, however, CNK1 depletion by siRNA abrogates ephrinB1-mediated cell migration and JNK activation. Moreover, Rho kinase inhibitor or JNK inhibitor treatment suppresses ephrinB1-mediated cell migration. Taken together, our findings suggest that CNK1 is required for ephrinB1-induced JNK activation and cell migration.

EphrinB2 affects apical constriction in Xenopus embryos and is regulated by ADAM10 and flotillin-1.

The Eph/ephrin signalling pathways have a critical function in cell adhesion and repulsion, and thus play key roles in various morphogenetic events during development. Here we show that a decrease in ephrinB2 protein causes neural tube closure defects during Xenopus laevis embryogenesis. Such a decrease in ephrinB2 protein levels is observed on the loss of flotillin-1 scaffold protein, a newly identified ephrinB2-binding partner. This dramatic decline in ephrinB2 protein levels on the absence of flotillin-1 expression is specific, and is partly the result of an increased susceptibility to cleavage by the metalloprotease ADAM10. These findings indicate that flotillin-1 regulates ephrinB2 protein levels through ADAM10, and is required for appropriate neural tube morphogenesis in the Xenopus embryo.

Conserved structural domains in FoxD4L1, a neural forkhead box transcription factor, are required to repress or activate target genes.

FoxD4L1 is a forkhead transcription factor that expands the neural ectoderm by down-regulating genes that promote the onset of neural differentiation and up-regulating genes that maintain proliferative neural precursors in an immature state. We previously demonstrated that binding of Grg4 to an Eh-1 motif enhances the ability of FoxD4L1 to down-regulate target neural genes but does not account for all of its repressive activity. Herein we analyzed the protein sequence for additional interaction motifs and secondary structure. Eight conserved motifs were identified in the C-terminal region of fish and frog proteins. Extending the analysis to mammals identified a high scoring motif downstream of the Eh-1 domain that contains a tryptophan residue implicated in protein-protein interactions. In addition, secondary structure prediction programs predicted an α-helical structure overlapping with amphibian-specific Motif 6 in Xenopus, and similarly located α-helical structures in other vertebrate FoxD proteins. We tested functionality of this site by inducing a glutamine-to-proline substitution expected to break the predicted α-helical structure; this significantly reduced FoxD4L1's ability to repress zic3 and irx1. Because this mutation does not interfere with Grg4 binding, these results demonstrate that at least two regions, the Eh-1 motif and a more C-terminal predicted α-helical/Motif 6 site, additively contribute to repression. In the N-terminal region we previously identified a 14 amino acid motif that is required for the up-regulation of target genes. Secondary structure prediction programs predicted a short ß-strand separating two acidic domains. Mutant constructs show that the ß-strand itself is not required for transcriptional activation. Instead, activation depends upon a glycine residue that is predicted to provide sufficient flexibility to bring the two acidic domains into close proximity. These results identify conserved predicted motifs with secondary structures that enable FoxD4L1 to carry out its essential functions as both a transcriptional repressor and activator of neural genes.

Abelson interactor 1 (ABI1) and its interaction with Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (wasp) are critical for proper eye formation in Xenopus embryos.

Abl interactor 1 (Abi1) is a scaffold protein that plays a central role in the regulation of actin cytoskeleton dynamics as a constituent of several key protein complexes, and homozygous loss of this protein leads to embryonic lethality in mice. Because this scaffold protein has been shown in cultured cells to be a critical component of pathways controlling cell migration and actin regulation at cell-cell contacts, we were interested to investigate the in vivo role of Abi1 in morphogenesis during the development of Xenopus embryos. Using morpholino-mediated translation inhibition, we demonstrate that knockdown of Abi1 in the whole embryo, or specifically in eye field progenitor cells, leads to disruption of eye morphogenesis. Moreover, signaling through the Src homology 3 domain of Abi1 is critical for proper movement of retinal progenitor cells into the eye field and their appropriate differentiation, and this process is dependent upon an interaction with the nucleation-promoting factor Wasp (Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein). Collectively, our data demonstrate that the Abi1 scaffold protein is an essential regulator of cell movement processes required for normal eye development in Xenopus embryos and specifically requires an Src homology 3 domain-dependent interaction with Wasp to regulate this complex morphogenetic process.

The Smurf ubiquitin ligases regulate tissue separation via antagonistic interactions with ephrinB1.

The formation of tissue boundaries is dependent on the cell-cell adhesion/repulsion system that is required for normal morphogenetic processes during development. The Smad ubiquitin regulatory factors (Smurfs) are E3 ubiquitin ligases with established roles in cell growth and differentiation, but whose roles in regulating cell adhesion and migration are just beginning to emerge. Here, we demonstrate that the Smurfs regulate tissue separation at mesoderm/ectoderm boundaries through antagonistic interactions with ephrinB1, an Eph receptor ligand that has a key role in regulating the separation of embryonic germ layers. EphrinB1 is targeted by Smurf2 for degradation; however, a Smurf1 interaction with ephrinB1 prevents the association with Smurf2 and precludes ephrinB1 from ubiquitination and degradation, since it is a substantially weaker substrate for Smurf1. Inhibition of Smurf1 expression in embryonic mesoderm results in loss of ephrinB1-mediated separation of this tissue from the ectoderm, which can be rescued by the coincident inhibition of Smurf2 expression. This system of differential interactions between Smurfs and ephrinB1 regulates the maintenance of tissue boundaries through the control of ephrinB protein levels.