In vitro effect of DDE exposure on the regulation of B-TC-6 pancreatic beta cell insulin secretion: a potential role in beta cell dysfunction and type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Organochlorine compounds (OC) include synthetic insecticides previously used throughout the world before being banned for their adverse effects and environmental persistence; DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) was one of the most widely used. Epidemiological evidence suggests that higher levels of some OC, including metabolites of DDT, such as dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE), are associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D). DDE exposure may affect pancreatic cellular functions associated with glucose control and possibly cause beta cell dysfunction. The in vitro effect of DDE exposure on pancreatic beta cell insulin secretion was investigated using Beta-Tumor Cell-6 (B-TC-6) murine pancreatic beta cells. DDE exposure significantly increased insulin secretion suggesting a role for DDE in altering insulin synthesis and secretion. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels were not significantly increased indicating that oxidative stress is not responsible for the DDE-induced insulin secretion. Pancreatic and duodenal homeobox factor-1 (PDX-1) levels were not significantly increased suggesting that DDE exposure does not alter insulin transcription, but prohormone convertase (PC) levels were increased suggesting a role for DDE in altering insulin translation. Based on these in vitro results, DDE may play a role in beta cell dysfunction by affecting mechanisms that regulate insulin secretion but it is not likely to be the major mechanism behind the DDE/T2D epidemiological association.

Oxime-mediated reactivation of organophosphate-inhibited acetylcholinesterase with emphasis on centrally-active oximes.

This review provides an overview of the global research leading to the large number of compounds developed as reactivators of acetylcholinesterase inhibited by a variety of organophosphate compounds, most of which are nerve agents but also some insecticides. A number of these organophosphates are highly toxic and effective therapy by reactivators contributes to saving lives. Two major challenges for more effective therapy with reactivators are identification of a broad spectrum reactivator efficacious against a variety of organophosphate structures, and a reactivator that can cross the blood-brain barrier to protect the brain. The most effective of the reactivators developed are the nucleophilic pyridinium oximes, which bear a permanent positive charge from the quaternary nitrogen in the pyridinium ring. The permanent positive charge retards the oximes from crossing the blood-brain barrier and therefore restoration of normal cholinergic function in the brain is unlikely. A number of laboratories have developed nucleophiles, mostly oximes, that are theorized to cross the blood-brain barrier by several strategies. At the present time, no reactivator is optimally broad spectrum across the wide group of organophosphate chemistries. Some oximes, including the substituted phenoxyalkyl pyridinium oximes invented by our laboratories, have the potential to provide neuroprotection in the brain and show evidence of efficacy against both nerve agent and insecticidal chemistries, so these novel oximes have promise for future development. This article is part of the special issue entitled 'Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitors: From Bench to Bedside to Battlefield'.

Novel Brain-Penetrating Oxime Acetylcholinesterase Reactivators Attenuate Organophosphate-Induced Neuropathology in the Rat Hippocampus.

Organophosphate (OP) anticholinesterases cause excess acetylcholine leading to seizures which, if prolonged, result in neuronal damage in the rodent brain. Novel substituted phenoxyalkyl pyridinium oximes have previously shown evidence of penetrating the rat blood-brain barrier (BBB) in in vivo tests with a sarin surrogate (nitrophenyl isopropyl methylphosphonate, NIMP) or the active metabolite of the insecticide parathion, paraoxon (PXN), by reducing the time to cessation of seizure-like behaviors and accumulation of glial fibrillary acidic protein, whereas 2-PAM did not. The neuroprotective ability of our lead oximes (15, 20, and 55) was tested using NeuN, Nissl, and Fluoro-Jade B staining in the rat hippocampus. Following lethal-level subcutaneous challenge with NIMP or PXN, rats were intramuscularly administered a novel oxime or 2-PAM plus atropine and euthanized at 4 days. There were statistically significant increases in the median damage scores of the NeuN-stained NIMP, NIMP/2-PAM, and NIMP/Oxime 15 groups compared with the control whereas the scores of the NIMP/Oxime 20 and NIMP/Oxime 55 were not significantly different from the control. The same pattern of statistical significance was observed with PXN. Nissl staining provided a similar pattern, but without statistical differences. Fluoro-Jade B indicated neuroprotection from PXN with novel oximes but not with 2-PAM. The longer blood residence times of Oximes 20 and 55 compared with Oxime 15 might have contributed to their greater efficacy. These results suggest that novel oximes 20 and 55 were able to penetrate the BBB and attenuate neuronal damage after NIMP and PXN exposure, indicating potential broad-spectrum usefulness.

In Vitro effect of DDE exposure on the regulation of lipid metabolism and secretion in McA-RH7777 hepatocytes: A potential role in dyslipidemia which may increase the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Organochlorine compounds (OC), such as the legacy insecticides, were widespread environmental contaminants. OC including dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE), a metabolite of the insecticide DDT, have an epidemiological association with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D) and may play a role in risk factors that contribute to T2D such as dyslipidemia. The liver, a potential target for DDE, plays a role in dyslipidemia. The in vitro effect of DDE on hepatocyte lipid metabolism and secretion was investigated using McArdle-RH7777 (McA) rodent hepatoma liver cells. When stimulated by the free fatty acid oleic acid (OA), DDE increased the secretion of apolipoprotein B (ApoB) suggesting a role for DDE in increasing lipid secretion. Intracellular protein levels of microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP) were increased while sortilin-1 (Sort-1) levels were decreased suggesting a role for DDE in increasing lipid transport and decreasing lipid degradation. Neutral lipids such as intracellular triglycerides (TG) were decreased suggesting that DDE may alter lipid accumulation in liver cells. DDE may play a role in dyslipidemia by affecting mechanisms that regulate lipid metabolism and secretion. These in vitro results on biochemical markers of liver cell dyslipidemia support the concept that DDE exposure may play a role in the dyslipidemia frequently observed in T2D.

Global liver proteomics of rats exposed for 5 days to phenobarbital identifies changes associated with cancer and with CYP metabolism.

A global proteomics approach was applied to model the hepatic response elicited by the toxicologically well-characterized xenobiotic phenobarbital (PB), a prototypical inducer of hepatic xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes and a well-known nongenotoxic liver carcinogen in rats. Differential detergent fractionation two-dimensional liquid chromatography electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry and systems biology modeling were used to identify alterations in toxicologically relevant hepatic molecular functions and biological processes in the livers of rats following a 5-day exposure to PB at 80 mg/kg/day or a vehicle control. Of the 3342 proteins identified, expression of 121 (3.6% of the total proteins) was significantly increased and 127 (3.8%) significantly decreased in the PB group compared to controls. The greatest increase was seen for cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2B2 (167-fold). All proteins with statistically significant differences from control were then analyzed using both Gene Ontology (GO) and Ingenuity Pathways Analysis (IPA, 5.0 IPA-Tox) for cellular location, function, network connectivity, and possible disease processes, especially as they relate to CYP-mediated metabolism and nongenotoxic carcinogenesis mechanisms. The GO results suggested that PB's mechanism of nongenotoxic carcinogenesis involves both increased xenobiotic metabolism, especially induction of the 2B subfamily of CYP enzymes, and increased cell cycle activity. Apoptosis, however, also increased, perhaps, as an attempt to counter the rising cancer threat. Of the IPA-mapped proteins, 41 have functions which are procarcinogenic and 14 anticarcinogenic according to the hypothesized nongenotoxic mechanism of imbalance between apoptosis and cellular proliferation. Twenty-two additional IPA nodes can be classified as procarcinogenic by the competing theory of increased metabolism resulting in the formation of reactive oxygen species. Since the systems biology modeling corresponded well to PB effects previously elucidated via more traditional methods, the global proteomic approach is proposed as a new screening methodology that can be incorporated into future toxicological studies.

Spatial distribution of CYP2B1/2 messenger RNA within the rat liver acinus following exposure to the inducers phenobarbital and dieldrin.

Traditionally, the liver has been considered a homogeneous organ, but literature suggests that the cytochromes P450 are differentially distributed among the hepatocytes and that the pattern of this distribution is altered by various xenobiotics. In this study, the CYP2B1/2 messenger RNA (mRNA) in the hepatocytes was compared following treatment of rats with either of two inducers, phenobarbital (PB), or dieldrin. Adult male Sprague-Dawley-derived rats were treated with either ip PB in saline at 80 mg/kg/day for 5 days or dieldrin in corn oil by oral gavage at 2.5 mg/kg/day for 13 days. Control rats received ip saline or po corn oil for the same time. Laser capture microdissection (LCM) followed by duplex quantitative real-time reverse transcriptase PCR was used to measure the CYP2B1/2 mRNA produced in bands of hepatocytes isolated from three locations along the sinusoidal path. The amounts of mRNA present in whole liver subsamples were also analyzed. CYP2B1/2 enzyme activity was determined by assaying 16beta-hydroxytestosterone formation. Whole liver mRNA samples exhibited significant induction in CYP2B1/2 transcript levels: sixfold for PB and 2200-fold for dieldrin. All the LCM band samples also showed significant fold induction in CYP2B1/2 mRNA compared to controls. Dieldrin caused marked increases in CYP2B1/2 mRNA levels in the direction of blood flow through the acinus: periportal, 300-fold; midzonal, 600-fold; and centrilobular, 1700-fold. A different pattern of induction was observed in the PB-treated rats: periportal, 1800-fold; midzonal, 8800-fold; and centrilobular, 1600-fold. The present study indicates the differences in spatial responses that can be exhibited within the liver following exposure to various xenobiotics. It also indicates the importance of examining xenobiotic metabolism in the liver in light of its nonhomogeneous, zoned microenvironment.