Research opportunities for the primary prevention and management of acute rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease: a National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute workshop report.

Primary prevention of acute rheumatic fever (ARF) and rheumatic heart disease (RHD) encompasses the timely diagnosis and adequate treatment of the superficial group A Streptococcus (GAS) infections pharyngitis and impetigo. GAS is the only known inciting agent in the pathophysiology of the disease. However, sufficient evidence indicates that the uptake and delivery of primary prevention approaches in RHD-endemic regions are significantly suboptimal. This report presents expert deliberations on priority research and implementation opportunities for primary prevention of ARF/RHD that were developed as part of a workshop convened by the US National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute in November 2021. The opportunities identified by the Primary Prevention Working Group encompass epidemiological, laboratory, clinical, implementation and dissemination research domains and are anchored on five pillars including: (A) to gain a better understanding of superficial GAS infection epidemiology to guide programmes and policies; (B) to improve diagnosis of superficial GAS infections in RHD endemic settings; (C) to develop scalable and sustainable models for delivery of primary prevention; (D) to understand potential downstream effects of the scale-up of primary prevention and (E) to develop and conduct economic evaluations of primary prevention strategies in RHD endemic settings. In view of the multisectoral stakeholders in primary prevention strategies, we emphasise the need for community co-design and government engagement, especially in the implementation and dissemination research arena. We present these opportunities as a reference point for research organisations and sponsors who aim to contribute to the increasing momentum towards the global control and prevention of RHD.

Evolutionary predictors of the specific colors of birds.

Animal coloration is one of the most conspicuous aspects of human-perceived organismal diversity, yet also one of the least understood. In particular, explaining why species have specific colors (e.g., blue vs. red) has proven elusive. Here, we quantify for nearly all bird species, the proportion of the body covered by each of 12 human-visible color categories, and test whether existing theory can predict the direction of color evolution. The most common colors are black, white, gray and brown, while the rarest are green, blue, purple, and red. Males have more blue, purple, red, or black, whereas females have more yellow, brown, or gray. Sexual dichromatism is partly due to sexual selection favoring ornamental colors in males but not in females. However, sexual selection also correlated positively with brown in both sexes. Strong social selection favors red and black, colors used in agonistic signaling, with the strongest effects in females. Reduced predation risk selects against cryptic colors (e.g., brown) and favors specific ornamental colors (e.g., black). Nocturnality is mainly associated with brown. The effects of habitat use support the sensory drive theory for camouflage and signaling. Darker colors are more common in species living in wet and cold climates, matching ecogeographical rules. Our study unambiguously supports existing theories of color evolution across an entire class of vertebrates, but much variation remains unexplained.

Structure-guided design of a broadly cross-reactive multivalent group a streptococcal vaccine.

The M protein of group A streptococci (Strep A) is a major virulence determinant and protective antigen. The N-terminal region of the M protein is variable in sequence, defines the M/emm type, and contains epitopes that elicit opsonic antibodies that protect animals from challenge infections. Although there are >200 M types of Strep A, there is now evidence that structurally related M proteins can be grouped into clusters and that immunity may be cluster-specific in addition to M type-specific. This observation has led to recent studies of structure-based design of multivalent M peptide vaccines to select peptides predicted to cross-react with heterologous M types to improve vaccine coverage. In the current study, we have applied a refined series of peptide structural algorithms to predict immunological cross-reactivity among 117 N-terminal M peptides representing the most prevalent M types of Strep A. Based on the results of the structural analyses, in combination with global M type prevalence data, we constructed a 32-valent vaccine containing 19 cross-reactive vaccine candidates predicted to cross-react with 37 heterologous M peptides to which were added 13 type-specific M peptides. The 4-protein recombinant vaccine was immunogenic in rabbits and elicited significant levels of antibodies against 31/32 (97%) vaccine peptides and 28/37 (76%) peptides predicted to cross-react. The vaccine antisera also promoted opsonophagocytic killing of vaccine and cross-reactive M types of Strep A. Based on a recent analysis of M type prevalence of Strep A, the potential global coverage of the 32-valent vaccine is âˆ¼90%, ranging from 68% in Africa to 95% in North America. Our results indicate the utility of structure-based design that may be applied to future studies of broadly protective M peptide vaccines.

Safety of Streptococcus pyogenes Vaccines: Anticipating and Overcoming Challenges for Clinical Trials and Post-Marketing Monitoring.

Streptococcus pyogenes (Strep A) infections result in a vastly underestimated burden of acute and chronic disease globally. The Strep A Vaccine Global Consortium's (SAVAC's) mission is to accelerate the development of safe, effective, and affordable S. pyogenes vaccines. The safety of vaccine recipients is of paramount importance. A single S. pyogenes vaccine clinical trial conducted in the 1960s raised important safety concerns. A SAVAC Safety Working Group was established to review the safety assessment methodology and results of more recent early-phase clinical trials and to consider future challenges for vaccine safety assessments across all phases of vaccine development. No clinical or biological safety signals were detected in any of these early-phase trials in the modern era. Improvements in vaccine safety assessments need further consideration, particularly for pediatric clinical trials, large-scale efficacy trials, and preparation for post-marketing pharmacovigilance.

Serum Immune Responses to Group A Streptococcal Antigens following Pharyngeal Acquisitions among Children in Cape Town, South Africa.

There is limited information on the human immune response following infection with group A Streptococcus (Strep A). Animal studies have shown, in addition to the M protein, that shared Strep A antigens elicit protective immunity. This study aimed to investigate the kinetics of antibody responses against a panel of Strep A antigens in a cohort of school-aged children in Cape Town, South Africa. Participants provided serial throat cultures and serum samples at two-monthly follow-up visits. Strep A recovered were emm-typed, and serum samples were analyzed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to assess immune responses to thirty-five Strep A antigens (10-shared and 25-M peptides). Serologic evaluations were performed on serial serum samples from 42 selected participants (from 256 enrolled) based on the number of follow-up visits, the frequency of visits, and throat culture results. Among these, there were 44 Strep A acquisitions, 36 of which were successfully emm-typed. Participants were grouped into three clinical event groups based on culture results and immune responses. A preceding infection was most convincingly represented by a Strep A-positive culture with an immune response to at least one shared antigen and M peptide (11 events) or a Strep A-negative culture with antibody responses to shared antigens and M peptides (9 events). More than a third of participants demonstrated no immune response despite a positive culture. This study provided important information regarding the complexity and variability of human immune responses following pharyngeal acquisition of Strep A, as well as demonstrating the immunogenicity of Strep A antigens currently under consideration as potential vaccine candidates. IMPORTANCE There is currently limited information regarding the human immune response to group A streptococcal throat infection. An understanding of the kinetics and specificity of antibody responses against a panel of Group A Streptococcus (GAS) antigens will serve to refine diagnostic approaches and contribute to vaccine efforts, which together will serve to reduce the burden of rheumatic heart disease, a major source of morbidity and mortality especially in the developing world. This study, utilizing an antibody-specific assay, uncovered three patterns of response profiles following GAS infection, among 256 children presenting with sore throat to local clinics. Overall, the response profiles were complex and variable. Of note, a preceding infection was most convincingly represented by a GAS-positive culture with an immune response to at least one shared antigen and M peptide. Also, more than a third of participants demonstrated no immune response despite a positive culture. All antigens tested were immunogenic, providing guidance for future vaccine development.

American Heart Association's Children's Strategically Focused Research Network Experience.

The American Heart Association's Strategically Focused Children's Research Network started in July 2017 with 4 unique programs at Children's National Hospital in Washington, DC; Duke University in Durham, North Carolina; University of Utah in Salt Lake City, Utah; and Lurie Children's Hospital/Northwestern University in Chicago, Illinois. The overarching goal of the Children's National center was to develop evidence-based strategies to strengthen the health system response to rheumatic heart disease through synergistic basic, clinical, and population science research. The overall goals of the Duke center were to determine risk factors for obesity and response to treatment including those that might work on a larger scale in communities across the country. The integrating theme of the Utah center focused on leveraging big data-science approaches to improve the quality of care and outcomes for children with congenital heart defects, within the context of the patient and their family. The overarching hypothesis of the Northwestern center is that the early course of change in cardiovascular health, from birth onward, reflects factors that result in either subsequent development of cardiovascular risk or preservation of lifetime favorable cardiovascular health. All 4 centers exceeded the original goals of research productivity, fellow training, and collaboration. This article describes details of these accomplishments and highlights challenges, especially around the COVID-19 pandemic.

The evolution of carotenoid-based plumage colours in passerine birds.

Many birds use carotenoids to colour their plumage yellow to red. Because birds cannot synthesise carotenoids, they need to obtain these pigments from food, although some species metabolise dietary carotenoids (which are often yellow) into derived carotenoids (often red). Here, we study the occurrence of yellow and red carotenoid-based plumage colours in the passerines, the largest bird radiation and quantify the effects of potential ecological and life-history drivers on their evolution. We scored the presence/absence of yellow and red carotenoid-based plumage in nearly 6,000 species and use Bayesian phylogenetic mixed models to assess the effects of carotenoid-availability in diet, primary productivity, body size, habitat and sexual selection. We also test the widespread assumption that red carotenoid-based colours are more likely to be the result of metabolization. Finally, we analyse the pattern of evolutionary transitions between yellow and red carotenoid-based plumage colours to determine whether, as predicted, the evolution of yellow carotenoid-based colours precedes red. We show that, as expected, both colours are more likely to evolve in smaller species and in species with carotenoid-rich diets. Yellow carotenoid-based plumage colours, but not red, are more prevalent in species that inhabit environments with higher primary productivity and closed vegetation. In general, females were more likely to have yellow and males more likely to have red carotenoid-based plumage colours, closely matching the effects of sexual selection. Our analyses also confirm that red carotenoid-based colours are more likely to be metabolised than yellow carotenoid-based colours. Evolutionary gains and losses of yellow and red carotenoid-based plumage colours indicate that red colours evolved more readily in species that already deposited yellow carotenoids, while the reverse was rarely the case. Our study provides evidence for a general, directional evolutionary trend from yellow to red carotenoid-based colours, which are more likely to be the result of metabolization. This may render them potentially better indicators of quality, and thus favoured by sexual selection.

Assessment of root-specific promoters in banana and tobacco and identification of a banana TIP2 promoter with strong root activity.

Genetic modification is one possible strategy to generate bananas (Musa spp.) with resistance to the soil-borne pathogen causing Fusarium wilt. The availability of banana root-specific promoters to target transgene expression to the sites of infection would be beneficial. We have assessed 18 promoter sequences derived from a range of plant species for their expression profiles in banana tissues to identify those with root-specific activity. Promoter sequences were isolated and fused to the ß-glucuronidase (GUS) gene to assess their expression levels and tissue specificity in both banana and the model plant tobacco. Two heterologous promoters conferring high root expression levels in banana were identified, including a ß-glucosidase 1 (GLU1) promoter from maize and the RB7-type tonoplast intrinsic protein (TIP)-2 promoter from strawberry. Further, a novel Musa TIP2-2 promoter sequence was isolated and characterized which, when fused to the GUS gene, conferred very high GUS expression levels in banana roots. These promoters will expand the options for the control of gene expression in genetically modified bananas, providing a tool to develop plants with resistance not only to soil-borne diseases such as Fusarium wilt, but also for the improvement of other traits, such as nematode resistance, nutrition or abiotic stress resistance.

Wildlife trade targets colorful birds and threatens the aesthetic value of nature.

A key component of nature's contribution to people is aesthetic value.1,2 Charismatic species rally public support and bolster conservation efforts.3,4 However, an insidious aspect to humanity's valuation of nature is that high value also drives wildlife trade,5,6 which can spearhead the demise of prized species.7-9 Here, we explore the antagonistic roles of aesthetic value in biodiversity conservation by using novel metrics of color to evaluate the aesthetics of the most speciose radiation of birds: passerines (i.e., the perching birds). We identify global color hotspots for passerines and highlight the breadth of color in the global bird trade. The tropics emerge as an epicentre of color, encompassing 91% and 65% of the world's most diverse and most uniquely colored passerine assemblages, respectively. We show that the pet trade, which currently affects 30% of passerines (1,408/5,266), traverses the avian phylogeny and targets clusters of related species that are uniquely colored. We identify an additional 478 species at risk of future trade based on their coloration and phylogenetic relationship to currently traded species-together totaling 1,886 species traded, a 34% increase. By modeling future extinctions based on species' current threat status, we predict localized losses of color diversity and uniqueness in many avian communities, undermining their aesthetic value and muting nature's color palette. Given the distribution of color and the association of unique colors with threat and trade, proactive regulation of the bird trade is crucial to conserving charismatic biodiversity, alongside recognition and celebration of color hotspots.

Incidence of RNA viruses infecting taro and tannia in East Africa and molecular characterisation of dasheen mosaic virus isolates.

Taro (Colocasia esculenta) and tannia (Xanthosoma sp.) plants growing in 25 districts across Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda were surveyed for four RNA viruses. Leaf samples from 392 plants were tested for cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), dasheen mosaic virus (DsMV), taro vein chlorosis virus (TaVCV) and Colocasia bobone disease-associated virus (CBDaV) by RT-PCR. No samples tested positive for TaVCV or CBDaV, while CMV was only detected in three tannia samples with mosaic symptoms from Uganda. DsMV was detected in 40 samples, including 36 out of 171 from Ethiopia, one out of 94 from Uganda and three out of 41 from Tanzania, while none of the 86 samples from Kenya tested positive for any of the four viruses. The complete genomes of nine DsMV isolates from East Africa were cloned and sequenced. Phylogenetic analyses based on the amino acid sequence of the DsMV CP-coding region revealed two distinct clades. Isolates from Ethiopia were distributed in both clades, while samples from Uganda and Tanzania belong to different clades. Seven possible recombination events were identified from the analysis carried out on the available 15 full-length DsMV isolates. Nucleotide substitution ratio analysis revealed that all the DsMV genes are under strong negative selection pressure.

Long-read sequencing reveals atypical mitochondrial genome structure in a New Zealand marine isopod.

Most animal mitochondrial genomes are small, circular and structurally conserved. However, recent work indicates that diverse taxa possess unusual mitochondrial genomes. In Isopoda, species in multiple lineages have atypical and rearranged mitochondrial genomes. However, more species of this speciose taxon need to be evaluated to understand the evolutionary origins of atypical mitochondrial genomes in this group. In this study, we report the presence of an atypical mitochondrial structure in the New Zealand endemic marine isopod, Isocladus armatus. Data from long- and short-read DNA sequencing suggest that I. armatus has two mitochondrial chromosomes. The first chromosome consists of two mitochondrial genomes that have been inverted and fused together in a circular form, and the second chromosome consists of a single mitochondrial genome in a linearized form. This atypical mitochondrial structure has been detected in other isopod lineages, and our data from an additional divergent isopod lineage (Sphaeromatidae) lends support to the hypothesis that atypical structure evolved early in the evolution of Isopoda. Additionally, we find that an asymmetrical site previously observed across many species within Isopoda is absent in I. armatus, but confirm the presence of two asymmetrical sites recently reported in two other isopod species.

Synthesis and SAR of novel GPR39 agonists and positive allosteric modulators.

We report a significant decrease in transcription of the G protein-coupled receptor GPR39 in striatal neurons of Parkinson's disease patients compared to healthy controls, suggesting that a positive modulator of GPR39 may beneficially impact neuroprotection. To test this notion, we developed various structurally diverse tool molecules. While we elaborated on previously reported starting points, we also performed an in silico screen which led to completely novel pharmacophores. In vitro studies indicated that GPR39 agonism does not have a profound effect on neuroprotection.

Validation of the Southend giant cell arteritis probability score in a Scottish single-centre fast-track pathway.

OBJECTIVE: The aim was to provide external validation of the Southend GCA probability score (GCAPS) in patients attending a GCA fast-track pathway (GCA FTP) in NHS Lanarkshire. METHODS: Consecutive GCA FTP patients between November 2018 and December 2020 underwent GCAPS assessment as part of routine care. GCA diagnoses were supported by US of the cranial and axillary arteries (USS), with or without temporal artery biopsy (TAB), and confirmed at 6 months. Percentages of patients with GCA according to GCAPS risk group, performance of total GCAPS in distinguishing GCA/non-GCA final diagnoses, and test characteristics using different GCAPS binary cut-offs were assessed. Associations between individual GCAPS components and GCA and the value of USS and TAB in the diagnostic process were also explored. RESULTS: Forty-four of 129 patients were diagnosed with GCA, including 0 of 41 GCAPS low-risk patients (GCAPS <9), 3 of 40 medium-risk patients (GCAPS 9-12) and 41 of 48 high-risk patients (GCAPS >12). Overall performance of GCAPS in distinguishing GCA/non-GCA was excellent [area under the receiver operating characteristic curve, 0.976 (95% CI 0.954, 0.999)]. GCAPS cut-off ≥10 had 100.0% sensitivity and 67.1% specificity for GCA. GCAPS cut-off ≥13 had the highest accuracy (91.5%), with 93.2% sensitivity and 90.6% specificity. Several individual GCAPS components were associated with GCA. Sensitivity of USS increased by ascending GCAPS risk group (nil, 33.3% and 90.2%, respectively). TAB was diagnostically useful in cases where USS was inconclusive. CONCLUSION: This is the first published study to describe application of GCAPS outside the specialist centre where it was developed. Performance of GCAPS as a risk stratification tool was excellent. GCAPS might have additional value for screening GCA FTP referrals and guiding empirical glucocorticoid treatment.

Migratory birds are lighter coloured.

Migratory birds undertake long and challenging journeys that have selected for a suite of adaptations from sensory mechanisms that facilitate orientation to extreme feats of endurance that push physiological limits. Recent work on two distantly related species revealed that migrating individuals increase their flight altitude dramatically during the day compared to at night1,2. These studies suggested that the phenomenon is driven by thermoregulation: the ascent to cooler heights during the day may offset heat generated by absorption of solar radiation. If thermoregulation is an important selective force on migratory species, migrants should have evolved lighter, more reflective plumage to avoid overheating. Here we show, across the entire avian radiation, that migratory species are indeed lighter coloured.

Inferring Mycobacterium bovis transmission between cattle and badgers using isolates from the Randomised Badger Culling Trial.

Mycobacterium bovis (M. bovis) is a causative agent of bovine tuberculosis, a significant source of morbidity and mortality in the global cattle industry. The Randomised Badger Culling Trial was a field experiment carried out between 1998 and 2005 in the South West of England. As part of this trial, M. bovis isolates were collected from contemporaneous and overlapping populations of badgers and cattle within ten defined trial areas. We combined whole genome sequences from 1,442 isolates with location and cattle movement data, identifying transmission clusters and inferred rates and routes of transmission of M. bovis. Most trial areas contained a single transmission cluster that had been established shortly before sampling, often contemporaneous with the expansion of bovine tuberculosis in the 1980s. The estimated rate of transmission from badger to cattle was approximately two times higher than from cattle to badger, and the rate of within-species transmission considerably exceeded these for both species. We identified long distance transmission events linked to cattle movement, recurrence of herd breakdown by infection within the same transmission clusters and superspreader events driven by cattle but not badgers. Overall, our data suggests that the transmission clusters in different parts of South West England that are still evident today were established by long-distance seeding events involving cattle movement, not by recrudescence from a long-established wildlife reservoir. Clusters are maintained primarily by within-species transmission, with less frequent spill-over both from badger to cattle and cattle to badger.

Utility of Human Immune Responses to GAS Antigens as a Diagnostic Indicator for ARF: A Systematic Review.

Background: Previous studies have established that streptococcal antibody titer is correlated with a diagnosis of acute rheumatic fever (ARF). However, results vary in the usefulness of GAS antibodies, particularly anti-streptolysin-O (ASO) and anti-DNase B, in confirming a recent GAS infection. Therefore, we sought to provide, from published studies, an evidence-based synthesis of the correlation of streptococcal serology to establish the usefulness of immunological data in aiding the diagnosis of ARF. These findings are anticipated to have implications where echocardiography is not freely available, especially where ARF is rampant. Methods: We conducted a comprehensive search across a number of databases. Applying a priori criteria, we selected articles reporting on studies, regardless of study design, that evaluate the levels of antibodies against GAS-specific antigens in ARF subjects against control values or a published standard. Data were extracted onto data extraction forms, captured electronically, and analyzed using Stata software. Risk of bias was assessed in included studies using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS). Results and Conclusion: The search strategy yielded 534 studies, from which 24 met the inclusion criteria, reporting on evaluation of titers for SLO (n = 10), DNase B (n = 9), anti-streptokinase (ASK) (n = 3) amongst others. Elevation in titers was determined by comparison with controls and upper limit of normal (ULN) antibody values as determined in healthy individuals. Meta-analysis of case-controlled studies revealed moderate odds ratio (OR) correlations between ARF diagnosis and elevated titers for SLO (OR = 10.57; 95% CI, 3.36-33.29; 10 studies) and DNAse B (OR = 6.97; 95% CI, 2.99-16.27; 7 studies). While providing support for incorporating SLO and DNase B in the diagnosis of ARF, we present the following reflections: an elevation in SLO and DNase B levels are not consistently associated with an ARF diagnosis; increasing the number of GAS proteins in the test is warranted to improve sensitivity; paired (acute and convalescent) samples could provide a more accurate indication of a rising titer. Use of community-based controls as a standard is not a reliable marker by which to gauge recent GAS infection.

Design of Broadly Cross-Reactive M Protein-Based Group A Streptococcal Vaccines.

Group A streptococcal infections are a significant cause of global morbidity and mortality. A leading vaccine candidate is the surface M protein, a major virulence determinant and protective Ag. One obstacle to the development of M protein-based vaccines is the >200 different M types defined by the N-terminal sequences that contain protective epitopes. Despite sequence variability, M proteins share coiled-coil structural motifs that bind host proteins required for virulence. In this study, we exploit this potential Achilles heel of conserved structure to predict cross-reactive M peptides that could serve as broadly protective vaccine Ags. Combining sequences with structural predictions, six heterologous M peptides in a sequence-related cluster were predicted to elicit cross-reactive Abs with the remaining five nonvaccine M types in the cluster. The six-valent vaccine elicited Abs in rabbits that reacted with all 11 M peptides in the cluster and functional opsonic Abs against vaccine and nonvaccine M types in the cluster. We next immunized mice with four sequence-unrelated M peptides predicted to contain different coiled-coil propensities and tested the antisera for cross-reactivity against 41 heterologous M peptides. Based on these results, we developed an improved algorithm to select cross-reactive peptide pairs using additional parameters of coiled-coil length and propensity. The revised algorithm accurately predicted cross-reactive Ab binding, improving the Matthews correlation coefficient from 0.42 to 0.74. These results form the basis for selecting the minimum number of N-terminal M peptides to include in potentially broadly efficacious multivalent vaccines that could impact the overall global burden of group A streptococcal diseases.

Infectivity of an Infectious Clone of Banana Streak CA Virus in A-Genome Bananas (Musa acuminata ssp.).

We have characterized the complete genome sequence of an Australian isolate of banana streak CA virus (BSCAV). A greater-than-full-length, cloned copy of the virus genome was assembled and agroinoculated into five tissue-cultured plants of nine different Musa acuminata banana accessions. BSCAV was highly infectious in all nine accessions. All five inoculated plants from eight accessions developed symptoms by 28 weeks post-inoculation, while all five plants of M. acuminata AA subsp. zebrina remained symptomless. Symptoms were mild in six accessions but were severe in Khae Phrae (M. acuminata subsp. siamea) and the East African Highland banana accession Igisahira Gisanzwe. This is the first full-length BSCAV genome sequence reported from Australia and the first report of the infectivity of an infectious clone of banana streak virus.

Transgenic Expression of dsRNA Targeting the Pentalonia nigronervosa acetylcholinesterase Gene in Banana and Plantain Reduces Aphid Populations.

The banana aphid, Pentalonia nigronervosa, is the sole insect vector of banana bunchy top virus (BBTV), the causal agent of banana bunchy top disease. The aphid acquires and transmits BBTV while feeding on infected banana plants. RNA interference (RNAi) enables the generation of pest and disease-resistant crops; however, its effectiveness relies on the identification of pivotal gene sequences to target and silence. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is an essential enzyme responsible for the hydrolytic metabolism of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in animals. In this study, the AChE gene of the banana aphid was targeted for silencing by RNAi through transgenic expression of AChE dsRNA in banana and plantain plants. The efficacy of dsRNA was first assessed using an artificial feeding assay. In vitro aphid feeding on a diet containing 7.5% sucrose, and sulfate complexes of trace metals supported aphid growth and reproduction. When AChE dsRNA was included in the diet, a dose of 500 ng/µL was lethal to the aphids. Transgenic banana cv. Cavendish Williams and plantain cvs. Gonja Manjaya and Orishele expressing AChE dsRNA were regenerated and assessed for transgene integration and copy number. When aphids were maintained on elite transgenic events, there was a 67.8%, 46.7%, and 75.6% reduction in aphid populations growing on Cavendish Williams, Gonja Manjaya, and Orishele cultivars, respectively, compared to those raised on nontransgenic control plants. These results suggest that RNAi targeting an essential aphid gene could be a useful means of reducing both aphid infestation and potentially the spread of the disease they transmit.