Antibiofilm activity of Prevotella species from the cystic fibrosis lung microbiota against Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

It is increasingly recognized that interspecies interactions may modulate the pathogenicity of Pseudomonas aeruginosa during chronic lung infections. Nevertheless, while the interaction between P. aeruginosa and pathogenic microorganisms co-infecting the lungs has been widely investigated, little is known about the influence of other members of the lung microbiota on the infection process. In this study, we focused on investigating the impact of Prevotella species isolated from the sputum of people with cystic fibrosis (pwCF) on biofilm formation and virulence factor production by P. aeruginosa. Screening of a representative collection of Prevotella species recovered from clinical samples showed that several members of this genus (8 out 10 isolates) were able to significantly reduce biofilm formation of P. aeruginosa PAO1, without impact on growth. Among the tested isolates, the strongest biofilm-inhibitory activity was observed for Prevotella intermedia and Prevotella nigrescens, which caused a reduction of up to 90% in the total biofilm biomass of several P. aeruginosa isolates from pwCF. In addition, a strain-specific effect of P. nigrescens on the ability of P. aeruginosa to produce proteases and pyocyanin was observed, with significant alterations in the levels of these virulence factors detected in LasR mutant strains. Overall, these results suggest that non-pathogenic bacteria from the lung microbiota may regulate pathogenicity traits of P. aeruginosa, and possibly affect the outcome of chronic lung infections.

Widespread fungal-bacterial competition for magnesium lowers bacterial susceptibility to polymyxin antibiotics.

Fungi and bacteria coexist in many polymicrobial communities, yet the molecular basis of their interactions remains poorly understood. Here, we show that the fungus Candida albicans sequesters essential magnesium ions from the bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa. To counteract fungal Mg2+ sequestration, P. aeruginosa expresses the Mg2+ transporter MgtA when Mg2+ levels are low. Thus, loss of MgtA specifically impairs P. aeruginosa in co-culture with C. albicans, but fitness can be restored by supplementing Mg2+. Using a panel of fungi and bacteria, we show that Mg2+ sequestration is a general mechanism of fungal antagonism against gram-negative bacteria. Mg2+ limitation enhances bacterial resistance to polymyxin antibiotics like colistin, which target gram-negative bacterial membranes. Indeed, experimental evolution reveals that P. aeruginosa evolves C. albicans-dependent colistin resistance via non-canonical means; antifungal treatment renders resistant bacteria colistin-sensitive. Our work suggests that fungal-bacterial competition could profoundly impact polymicrobial infection treatment with antibiotics of last resort.

Uncovering a hidden functional role of the XRE-cupin protein PsdR as a novel quorum-sensing regulator in Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

XRE-cupin family proteins containing an DNA-binding domain and a cupin signal-sensing domain are widely distributed in bacteria. In Pseudomonas aeruginosa, XRE-cupin transcription factors have long been recognized as regulators exclusively controlling cellular metabolism pathways. However, their potential functional roles beyond metabolism regulation remain unknown. PsdR, a typical XRE-cupin transcriptional regulator, was previously characterized as a local repressor involved solely in dipeptide metabolism. Here, by measuring quorum-sensing (QS) activities and QS-controlled metabolites, we uncover that PsdR is a new QS regulator in P. aeruginosa. Our RNA-seq analysis showed that rather than a local regulator, PsdR controls a large regulon, including genes associated with both the QS circuit and non-QS pathways. To unveil the underlying mechanism of PsdR in modulating QS, we developed a comparative transcriptome approach named "transcriptome profile similarity analysis" (TPSA). Using this TPSA method, we revealed that PsdR expression causes a QS-null-like transcriptome profile, resulting in QS-inactive phenotypes. Based on the results of TPSA, we further demonstrate that PsdR directly binds to the promoter for the gene encoding the QS master transcription factor LasR, thereby negatively regulating its expression and influencing QS activation. Moreover, our results showed that PsdR functions as a negative virulence regulator, as inactivation of PsdR enhanced bacterial cytotoxicity on host cells. In conclusion, we report on a new QS regulation role for PsdR, providing insights into its role in manipulating QS-controlled virulence. Most importantly, our findings open the door for a further discovery of untapped functions for other XRE-Cupin family proteins.

Quorum-sensing regulation of phenazine production heightens Pseudomonas aeruginosa resistance to ciprofloxacin.

Quorum sensing is a type of cell-cell communication that modulates various biological activities of bacteria. Previous studies indicate that quorum sensing contributes to the evolution of bacterial resistance to antibiotics, but the underlying mechanisms are not fully understood. In this study, we grew Pseudomonas aeruginosa in the presence of sub-lethal concentrations of ciprofloxacin, resulting in a large increase in ciprofloxacin minimal inhibitory concentration. We discovered that quorum sensing-mediated phenazine biosynthesis was significantly enhanced in the resistant isolates, where the quinolone circuit was the predominant contributor to this phenomenon. We found that production of pyocyanin changed carbon flux and showed that the effect can be partially inhibited by the addition of pyruvate to cultures. This study illustrates the role of quorum sensing-mediated phenotypic resistance and suggests a strategy for its prevention.

The end of the reign of a "master regulator''? A defect in function of the LasR quorum sensing regulator is a common feature of Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a bacterium causing infections in immunocompromised individuals, regulates several of its virulence functions using three interlinked quorum sensing (QS) systems (las, rhl, and pqs). Despite its presumed importance in regulating virulence, dysfunction of the las system regulator LasR occurs frequently in strains isolated from various environments, including clinical infections. This newfound abundance of LasR-defective strains calls into question existing hypotheses regarding their selection. Indeed, current assumptions concerning factors driving the emergence of LasR-deficient isolates and the role of LasR in the QS hierarchy must be reconsidered. Here, we propose that LasR is not the primary master regulator of QS in all P. aeruginosa genetic backgrounds, even though it remains ecologically significant. We also revisit and complement current knowledge on the ecology of LasR-dependent QS in P. aeruginosa, discuss the hypotheses explaining the putative adaptive benefits of selecting against LasR function, and consider the implications of this renewed understanding.

Tripartite interactions between filamentous Pf4 bacteriophage, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and bacterivorous nematodes.

The opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 is infected by the filamentous bacteriophage Pf4. Pf4 virions promote biofilm formation, protect bacteria from antibiotics, and modulate animal immune responses in ways that promote infection. Furthermore, strains cured of their Pf4 infection (ΔPf4) are less virulent in animal models of infection. Consistently, we find that strain ΔPf4 is less virulent in a Caenorhabditis elegans nematode infection model. However, our data indicate that PQS quorum sensing is activated and production of the pigment pyocyanin, a potent virulence factor, is enhanced in strain ΔPf4. The reduced virulence of ΔPf4 despite high levels of pyocyanin production may be explained by our finding that C. elegans mutants unable to sense bacterial pigments through the aryl hydrocarbon receptor are more susceptible to ΔPf4 infection compared to wild-type C. elegans. Collectively, our data support a model where suppression of quorum-regulated virulence factors by Pf4 allows P. aeruginosa to evade detection by innate host immune responses.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa Quorum Sensing.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa, like many bacteria, uses chemical signals to communicate between cells in a process called quorum sensing (QS). QS allows groups of bacteria to sense population density and, in response to changing cell densities, to coordinate behaviors. The P. aeruginosa QS system consists of two complete circuits that involve acyl-homoserine lactone signals and a third system that uses quinolone signals. Together, these three QS circuits regulate the expression of hundreds of genes, many of which code for virulence factors. P. aeruginosa has become a model for studying the molecular biology of QS and the ecology and evolution of group behaviors in bacteria. In this chapter, we recount the history of discovery of QS systems in P. aeruginosa, discuss how QS relates to virulence and the ecology of this bacterium, and explore strategies to inhibit QS. Finally, we discuss future directions for research in P. aeruginosa QS.

Genetic and Transcriptomic Characteristics of RhlR-Dependent Quorum Sensing in Cystic Fibrosis Isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

In people with the genetic disease cystic fibrosis (CF), bacterial infections involving the opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa are a significant cause of morbidity and mortality. P. aeruginosa uses a cell-cell signaling mechanism called quorum sensing (QS) to regulate many virulence functions. One type of QS consists of acyl-homoserine lactone (AHL) signals produced by LuxI-type signal synthases, which bind a cognate LuxR-type transcription factor. In laboratory strains and conditions, P. aeruginosa employs two AHL synthase/receptor pairs arranged in a hierarchy, with the LasI/R system controlling the RhlI/R system and many downstream virulence factors. However, P. aeruginosa isolates with inactivating mutations in lasR are frequently isolated from chronic CF infections. We and others have shown that these isolates frequently use RhlR as the primary QS regulator. RhlR is rarely mutated in CF and environmental settings. We were interested in determining whether there were reproducible genetic characteristics of these isolates and whether there was a central group of genes regulated by RhlR in all isolates. We examined five isolates and found signatures of adaptation common to CF isolates. We did not identify a common genetic mechanism to explain the switch from Las- to Rhl-dominated QS. We describe a core RhlR regulon encompassing 20 genes encoding 7 products. These results suggest a key group of QS-regulated factors important for pathogenesis of chronic infections and position RhlR as a target for anti-QS therapeutics. Our work underscores the need to sample a diversity of isolates to understand QS beyond what has been described in laboratory strains. IMPORTANCE The bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa can cause chronic infections that are resistant to treatment in immunocompromised individuals. Over the course of these infections, the original infecting organism adapts to the host environment. P. aeruginosa uses a cell-cell signaling mechanism termed quorum sensing (QS) to regulate virulence factors and cooperative behaviors. The key QS regulator in laboratory strains, LasR, is frequently mutated in infection-adapted isolates, leaving another transcription factor, RhlR, in control of QS gene regulation. Such isolates provide an opportunity to understand Rhl-QS regulation without the confounding effects of LasR, as well as the scope of QS in the context of within-host evolution. We show that a core group of virulence genes is regulated by RhlR in a variety of infection-adapted LasR-null isolates. Our results reveal commonalities in infection-adapted QS gene regulation and key QS factors that may serve as therapeutic targets in the future.

Evolution of the Quorum Sensing Regulon in Cooperating Populations of Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

In the opportunistic pathogenic bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa acyl-homoserine lactone quorum sensing (QS) can activate expression of dozens to hundreds of genes depending on the strain under investigation. Many QS-activated genes code for extracellular products. P. aeruginosa has become a model for studies of cell-cell communication and coordination of cooperative activities, which result from production of extracellular products. We hypothesized that strain variation in the size of the QS regulon might reflect the environmental history of an isolate. We tested the hypothesis by performing long-term growth experiments with the well-studied strain PAO1, which has a relatively large QS regulon, under conditions where only limited QS-controlled functions are required. We grew P. aeruginosa for about 1000 generations in a condition where expression of QS-activated genes was required, and emergence of QS mutants was constrained and compared the QS regulons of populations after 35 generations to those after about 1000 generations in two independent lineages by using quorum quenching and RNA-seq technology. In one lineage the number of QS-activated genes identified was reduced by over 60% and in the other by about 30% in 1000-generation populations compared to 35-generation populations. Our results provide insight about the variations in the number of QS-activated genes reported for different P. aeruginosa environmental and clinical isolates and, about how environmental conditions might influence social evolution. IMPORTANCE Pseudomonas aeruginosa uses quorum sensing (QS) to activate expression of dozens of genes (the QS regulon). Because there is strain-to-strain variation in the size and content of the QS regulon, we asked how the regulon might evolve during long-term P. aeruginosa growth when cells require some but not all the functions activated by QS. We demonstrate that the P. aeruginosa QS-regulon can undergo a reductive adaptation in response to continuous QS-dependent growth. Our results provide insights into why there is strain-to-strain variability in the size and content of the P. aeruginosa QS regulon.

Resistance elicited by sub-lethal concentrations of ampicillin is partially mediated by quorum sensing in Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

The rapid increase of antibiotic resistance is a serious challenge around the world. Antibiotics are present in various environments at sub-lethal concentrations, but how resistance emerges under sub-lethal conditions is not fully clear. In this study, we evolved Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 under sub-lethal conditions, in the presence of either 15-30 µg/mL or 150-300 µg/mL of ampicillin. We found a ~ 5-6 fold increase in the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) among evolved isolates exposed to 15-30 µg/mL of ampicillin, and more than a 19-fold of increase in 150-300 µg/mL of ampicillin exposure. DNA sequencing revealed that mpl and ampD were frequently mutated in these resistant strains. We performed a transcriptome analysis of deletion mutations of mpl or ampD, compared to PAO1. Both showed a two-fold increase in expression of quorum sensing (QS) genes including lasR and rhlI/R; the heightened expression was positively correlated with the expression of the ampicillin resistance gene ampC. We queried if quorum sensing contributes to the increase in the ampicillin MIC. After adding the quorum quencher acylase I, the growth yield both decreased by roughly 50% for Δmpl in 2000 µg/mL of ampicillin and ΔampD in 4000 µg/mL of ampicillin. Addition of the QS signals into synthase mutants restored the higher MIC, but only for the rhlI/R circuit. This study highlights the involvement of QS in antibiotic resistance evolution, and shows the multifactorial contributors to the observed phenotypes.

Tobramycin Adaptation Enhances Policing of Social Cheaters in Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

The Pseudomonas aeruginosa LasR-LasI (LasR-I) quorum sensing system regulates secreted proteases that can be exploited by cheaters, such as quorum sensing receptor-defective (lasR) mutants. lasR mutants emerge in populations growing on casein as a sole source of carbon and energy. These mutants are exploitative cheaters because they avoid the substantial cost of engaging in quorum sensing. Previous studies showed that quorum sensing increases resistance to some antibiotics, such as tobramycin. Here, we show that tobramycin suppressed the emergence of lasR mutants in casein-passaged populations. Several mutations accumulated in those populations, indicating evidence of antibiotic adaptation. We found that mutations in one gene, ptsP, increased antibiotic resistance and also pleiotropically increased production of a quorum sensing-controlled phenazine, pyocyanin. When passaged on casein, ptsP mutants suppressed cheaters in a manner that was tobramycin independent. We found that the mechanism of cheater suppression in ptsP mutants relied on pyocyanin, which acts as a policing toxin by selectively blocking growth of cheaters. Thus, tobramycin suppresses lasR mutants through two mechanisms: first, through direct effects on cheaters and, second, by selecting mutations in ptsP that suppressed cheating in a tobramycin-independent manner. This work demonstrates how adaptive mutations can alter the dynamics of cooperator-cheater relationships, which might be important for populations adapting to antibiotics during interspecies competition or infections. IMPORTANCE The opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a model for understanding quorum sensing, a type of cell-cell signaling important for cooperation. Quorum sensing controls production of cooperative goods, such as exoenzymes, which are vulnerable to cheating by quorum sensing-defective mutants. Because uncontrolled cheating can ultimately cause a population to collapse, much focus has been on understanding how P. aeruginosa can control cheaters. We show that an antibiotic, tobramycin, can suppress cheaters in cooperating P. aeruginosa populations. Tobramycin suppresses cheaters directly because the cheaters are more susceptible to tobramycin than cooperators. Tobramycin also selects for mutations in a gene, ptsP, that suppresses cheaters independent of tobramycin through pleiotropic regulation of a policing toxin, pyocyanin. This work supports the idea that adaptation to antibiotics can have unexpected effects on the evolution of quorum sensing and has implications for understanding how cooperation evolves in dynamic bacterial communities.

Burkholderia thailandensis Methylated Hydroxyalkylquinolines: Biosynthesis and Antimicrobial Activity in Cocultures.

The bacterium Burkholderia thailandensis produces an arsenal of secondary metabolites that have diverse structures and roles in the ecology of this soil-dwelling bacterium. In coculture experiments, B. thailandensis strain E264 secretes an antimicrobial that nearly eliminates another soil bacterium, Bacillus subtilis strain 168. To identify the antimicrobial, we used a transposon mutagenesis approach. This screen identified antimicrobial-defective mutants with insertions in the hmqA, hmqC, and hmqF genes involved in biosynthesis of a family of 2-alkyl-4(1H)-quinolones called 4-hydroxy-3-methyl-2-alkenylquinolines (HMAQs), which are closely related to the Pseudomonas aeruginosa 4-hydroxy-2-alkylquinolines (HAQs). Insertions also occurred in the previously uncharacterized gene BTH_II1576 ("hmqL"). The results confirm that BTH_II1576 is involved in generating N-oxide derivatives of HMAQs (HMAQ-NOs). Synthetic HMAQ-NO is active against B. subtilis 168, showing ∼50-fold more activity than HMAQ. Both the methyl group and the length of the carbon side chain account for the high activity of HMAQ-NO. The results provide new information on the biosynthesis and activities of HMAQs and reveal new insight into how these molecules might be important for the ecology of B. thailandensisIMPORTANCE The soil bacterium Burkholderia thailandensis produces 2-alkyl-4(1H)-quinolones that are mostly methylated 4-hydroxyalkenylquinolines, a family of relatively unstudied metabolites similar to molecules also synthesized by Pseudomonas aeruginosa Several of the methylated 4-hydroxyalkenylquinolines have antimicrobial activity against other species. We show that Bacillus subtilis strain 168 is particularly susceptible to N-oxidated methylalkenylquinolines (HMAQ-NOs). We confirmed that HMAQ-NO biosynthesis requires the previously unstudied protein HmqL. These results provide new information about the biology of 2-alkyl-4(1H)-quinolones, particularly the methylated 4-hydroxyalkenylquinolines, which are unique to B. thailandensis This study also has importance for understanding B. thailandensis secondary metabolites and has implications for potential therapeutic development.

RhlR-Regulated Acyl-Homoserine Lactone Quorum Sensing in a Cystic Fibrosis Isolate of Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

The opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a leading cause of airway infection in cystic fibrosis (CF) patients. P. aeruginosa employs several hierarchically arranged and interconnected quorum sensing (QS) regulatory circuits to produce a battery of virulence factors such as elastase, phenazines, and rhamnolipids. The QS transcription factor LasR sits atop this hierarchy and activates the transcription of dozens of genes, including that encoding the QS regulator RhlR. Paradoxically, inactivating lasR mutations are frequently observed in isolates from CF patients with chronic P. aeruginosa infections. In contrast, mutations in rhlR are rare. We have recently shown that in CF isolates, the QS circuitry is often rewired such that RhlR acts in a LasR-independent manner. To begin understanding how QS activity differs in this rewired background, we characterized QS activation and RhlR-regulated gene expression in P. aeruginosa E90, a LasR-null, RhlR-active chronic infection isolate. In this isolate, RhlR activates the expression of 53 genes in response to increasing cell density. The genes regulated by RhlR include several that encode virulence factors. Some, but not all, of these genes are present in the QS regulon described in the well-studied laboratory strain PAO1. We also demonstrate that E90 produces virulence factors at similar concentrations as PAO1, and in E90, RhlR plays a significant role in mediating cytotoxicity in a three-dimensional lung epithelium cell model. These data illuminate a rewired LasR-independent RhlR regulon in chronic infection isolates and suggest further investigation of RhlR as a possible target for therapeutic development in chronic infections.IMPORTANCEPseudomonas aeruginosa is a prominent cystic fibrosis (CF) pathogen that uses quorum sensing (QS) to regulate virulence. In laboratory strains, the key QS regulator is LasR. Many isolates from patients with chronic CF infections appear to use an alternate QS circuitry in which another transcriptional regulator, RhlR, mediates QS. We show that a LasR-null CF clinical isolate engages in QS through RhlR and remains capable of inducing cell death in an in vivo-like lung epithelium cell model. Our findings support the notion that LasR-null clinical isolates can engage in RhlR QS and highlight the centrality of RhlR in chronic P. aeruginosa infections.

More than Simple Parasites: the Sociobiology of Bacteriophages and Their Bacterial Hosts.

Bacteria harbor viruses called bacteriophages that, like all viruses, co-opt the host cellular machinery to replicate. Although this relationship is at first glance parasitic, there are social interactions among and between bacteriophages and their bacterial hosts. These social interactions can take on many forms, including cooperation, altruism, and cheating. Such behaviors among individuals in groups of bacteria have been well described. However, the social nature of some interactions between phages or phages and bacteria is only now becoming clear. We are just beginning to understand how bacteriophages affect the sociobiology of bacteria, and we know even less about social interactions within bacteriophage populations. In this review, we discuss recent developments in our understanding of bacteriophage sociobiology, including how selective pressures influence the outcomes of social interactions between populations of bacteria and bacteriophages. We also explore how tripartite social interactions between bacteria, bacteriophages, and an animal host affect host-microbe interactions. Finally, we argue that understanding the sociobiology of bacteriophages will have implications for the therapeutic use of bacteriophages to treat bacterial infections.

Conditional quorum-sensing induction of a cyanide-insensitive terminal oxidase stabilizes cooperating populations of Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa, an opportunistic pathogen of humans, uses quorum sensing (QS) to regulate the production of extracellular products that can benefit all members of the population. P. aeruginosa can police QS-deficient cheaters by producing hydrogen cyanide, which is also QS regulated; however, the mechanism by which cooperators selectively protect themselves from the toxicity of cyanide remained unresolved. Here, we show that a cyanide-insensitive terminal oxidase encoded by cioAB provides resistance to cyanide, but only in QS-proficient strains. QS-deficient cheaters do not activate cioAB transcription. QS-mediated regulation of cioAB expression depends on production of both cyanide by cooperators (which is QS regulated) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) from cheaters (which is not QS regulated). This type of regulatory system allows cooperating populations to respond, via ROS, to the presence of cheaters, and might allow them to defer the substantial metabolic cost of policing until cheaters are present in the population.

In vitro evolution of Pseudomonas aeruginosa AA2 biofilms in the presence of cystic fibrosis lung microbiome members.

In cystic fibrosis (CF) airways, the opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa evolves from an acute to a chronic infection phenotype. Yet, the in vivo factors influencing the evolutionary trajectory of P. aeruginosa are poorly understood. This study aimed at understanding the role of the CF lung microbiome in P. aeruginosa evolution. Therefore, we investigated the in vitro biofilm evolution of an early CF P. aeruginosa isolate, AA2, in the presence or absence of a synthetic CF lung microbiome. Whole genome sequencing of evolved populations revealed mutations in quorum sensing (QS) genes (lasR, pqsR) with and without the microbiome. Phenotypic assays confirmed decreased production of the QS molecule 3-O-C12-homoserine lactone, and QS-regulated virulence factors pyocyanin and protease. Furthermore, a mixture of lasR and lasR pqsR mutants was found, in which double mutants showed less pyocyanin and protease production than lasR mutants. While the microbial community did not influence the production of the tested P. aeruginosa virulence factors, we observed a trend towards more mutations in the transcriptional regulators gntR and mexL when P. aeruginosa was grown alone. P. aeruginosa developed resistance to ß-lactam antibiotics during evolution, when grown with and without the microbiome. In conclusion, in an experimental biofilm environment, the early P. aeruginosa CF isolate AA2 evolves towards a CF-like genotype and phenotype, and most studied evolutionary adaptations are not impacted by CF microbiome members.

Dynamics of cheater invasion in a cooperating population of Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa quorum sensing (QS) regulates expression of dozens of genes in a cell density-dependent manner. Many QS-regulated genes code for production of extracellular factors, "public goods" that can benefit the entire population. This cooperation encourages individuals to cheat by using but not producing public goods. QS also controls expression of a limited number of genes encoding "private" cellular enzymes like Nuh, an enzyme involved in adenosine catabolism. Growth of P. aeruginosa on casein requires QS-regulated production of an extracellular protease and is an example of cooperative behavior. When P. aeruginosa is transferred daily on casein, QS mutants emerge. These cheaters have mutations in lasR, which encodes the primary QS transcription factor. When growth is on casein and adenosine, cheater emergence is constrained. Here, we report the dynamics of LasR mutant invasion during growth on casein or casein plus adenosine. We show that LasR mutants have the greatest advantage during early to mid-logarithmic growth on casein. Addition of adenosine to casein medium constrains cheaters throughout growth. Our data support the view that co-regulation of the public protease and the private nucleosidase by QS stabilizes cooperation, and the data are not consistent with other proposed alternate hypotheses.

Evolution of the Pseudomonas aeruginosa quorum-sensing hierarchy.

The bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa activates expression of many virulence genes in a cell density-dependent manner by using an intricate quorum-sensing (QS) network. QS in P. aeruginosa involves two acyl-homoserine-lactone circuits, LasI-LasR and RhlI-RhlR. LasI-LasR is required to activate many genes including those coding for RhlI-RhlR. P. aeruginosa causes chronic infections in the lungs of people with cystic fibrosis (CF). In these infections, LasR mutants are common, but rhlR-rhlI expression has escaped LasR regulation in many CF isolates. To better understand the evolutionary trajectory of P. aeruginosa QS in chronic infections, we grew LasR mutants of the well-studied P. aeruginosa strain, PAO1, in conditions that recapitulate an environment where QS signal synthesis by other bacteria might still occur. When QS is required for growth, addition of the RhlI product butyryl-homoserine lactone (C4-HSL), or bacteria that produce C4-HSL, to LasR mutants results in the rapid emergence of a population with a LasR-independent RhlI-RhlR QS system. These evolved populations exhibit subsequent growth without added C4-HSL. The variants that emerge have mutations in mexT, which codes for a transcription factor that controls expression of multiple genes. LasR-MexT mutants have a competitive advantage over both the parent LasR mutant and a LasR-MexT-RhlR mutant. Our findings suggest a plausible evolutionary trajectory for QS in P. aeruginosa CF infections where LasR mutants arise during infection, but because these mutants are surrounded by C4-HSL-producing P. aeruginosa, variants rewired to have a LasR-independent RhlIR system quickly emerge.

Modulation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Quorum Sensing by Glutathione.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa uses quorum sensing (QS) to regulate the production of a battery of secreted products. At least some of these products are shared among the population and serve as public goods. When P. aeruginosa is grown on casein as the sole carbon and energy source, the QS-induced extracellular protease elastase is required for growth. We isolated a P. aeruginosa variant, which showed increased production of QS-induced factors after repeated transfers in casein broth. This variant, P. aeruginosa QS*, had a mutation in the glutathione synthesis gene gshA We describe several experiments that show a gshA coding variant and glutathione affect the QS response. The P. aeruginosa QS transcription factor LasR has a redox-sensitive cysteine (C79). We report that GshA variant cells with a LasR C79S substitution show a similar QS response to that of wild-type P. aeruginosa Surprisingly, it is not LasR but the QS transcription factor RhlR that is more active in bacteria containing the variant gshA Our results demonstrate that QS integrates information about cell density and the cellular redox state via glutathione levels.IMPORTANCEPseudomonas aeruginosa and other bacteria coordinate group behaviors using a chemical communication system called quorum sensing (QS). The QS system of P. aeruginosa is complex, with several regulators and signals. We show that decreased levels of glutathione lead to increased gene activation in P. aeruginosa, which did not occur in a strain carrying the redox-insensitive variant of a transcription factor. The ability of P. aeruginosa QS transcription factors to integrate information about cell density and cellular redox state shows these transcription factors can fine-tune levels of the gene products they control in response to at least two types of signals or cues.