Impaired hippocampal place cell dynamics in a mouse model of the 22q11.2 deletion.

Hippocampal place cells represent the cellular substrate of episodic memory. Place cell ensembles reorganize to support learning but must also maintain stable representations to facilitate memory recall. Despite extensive research, the learning-related role of place cell dynamics in health and disease remains elusive. Using chronic two-photon Ca2+ imaging in hippocampal area CA1 of wild-type and Df(16)A+/- mice, an animal model of 22q11.2 deletion syndrome, one of the most common genetic risk factors for cognitive dysfunction and schizophrenia, we found that goal-oriented learning in wild-type mice was supported by stable spatial maps and robust remapping of place fields toward the goal location. Df(16)A+/- mice showed a significant learning deficit accompanied by reduced spatial map stability and the absence of goal-directed place cell reorganization. These results expand our understanding of the hippocampal ensemble dynamics supporting cognitive flexibility and demonstrate their importance in a model of 22q11.2-associated cognitive dysfunction.

In Vivo Imaging of Dentate Gyrus Mossy Cells in Behaving Mice.

Mossy cells in the hilus of the dentate gyrus constitute a major excitatory principal cell type in the mammalian hippocampus; however, it remains unknown how these cells behave in vivo. Here, we have used two-photon Ca2+ imaging to monitor the activity of mossy cells in awake, behaving mice. We find that mossy cells are significantly more active than dentate granule cells in vivo, exhibit spatial tuning during head-fixed spatial navigation, and undergo robust remapping of their spatial representations in response to contextual manipulation. Our results provide a functional characterization of mossy cells in the behaving animal and demonstrate their active participation in spatial coding and contextual representation.

Sublayer-Specific Coding Dynamics during Spatial Navigation and Learning in Hippocampal Area CA1.

The mammalian hippocampus is critical for spatial information processing and episodic memory. Its primary output cells, CA1 pyramidal cells (CA1 PCs), vary in genetics, morphology, connectivity, and electrophysiological properties. It is therefore possible that distinct CA1 PC subpopulations encode different features of the environment and differentially contribute to learning. To test this hypothesis, we optically monitored activity in deep and superficial CA1 PCs segregated along the radial axis of the mouse hippocampus and assessed the relationship between sublayer dynamics and learning. Superficial place maps were more stable than deep during head-fixed exploration. Deep maps, however, were preferentially stabilized during goal-oriented learning, and representation of the reward zone by deep cells predicted task performance. These findings demonstrate that superficial CA1 PCs provide a more stable map of an environment, while their counterparts in the deep sublayer provide a more flexible representation that is shaped by learning about salient features in the environment. VIDEO ABSTRACT.

Distinct Contribution of Adult-Born Hippocampal Granule Cells to Context Encoding.

Adult-born granule cells (abGCs) have been implicated in cognition and mood; however, it remains unknown how these cells behave in vivo. Here, we have used two-photon calcium imaging to monitor the activity of young abGCs in awake behaving mice. We find that young adult-born neurons fire at a higher rate in vivo but paradoxically exhibit less spatial tuning than their mature counterparts. When presented with different contexts, mature granule cells underwent robust remapping of their spatial representations, and the few spatially tuned adult-born cells remapped to a similar degree. We next used optogenetic silencing to confirm the direct involvement of abGCs in context encoding and discrimination, consistent with their proposed role in pattern separation. These results provide the first in vivo characterization of abGCs and reveal their participation in the encoding of novel information.

Scaling up of renewable chemicals.

The transition of promising technologies for production of renewable chemicals from a laboratory scale to commercial scale is often difficult and expensive. As a result the timeframe estimated for commercialization is typically underestimated resulting in much slower penetration of these promising new methods and products into the chemical industries. The theme of 'sugar is the next oil' connects biological, chemical, and thermochemical conversions of renewable feedstocks to products that are drop-in replacements for petroleum derived chemicals or are new to market chemicals/materials. The latter typically offer a functionality advantage and can command higher prices that result in less severe scale-up challenges. However, for drop-in replacements, price is of paramount importance and competitive capital and operating expenditures are a prerequisite for success. Hence, scale-up of relevant technologies must be interfaced with effective and efficient management of both cell and steel factories. Details involved in all aspects of manufacturing, such as utilities, sterility, product recovery and purification, regulatory requirements, and emissions must be managed successfully.

SIMA: Python software for analysis of dynamic fluorescence imaging data.

Fluorescence imaging is a powerful method for monitoring dynamic signals in the nervous system. However, analysis of dynamic fluorescence imaging data remains burdensome, in part due to the shortage of available software tools. To address this need, we have developed SIMA, an open source Python package that facilitates common analysis tasks related to fluorescence imaging. Functionality of this package includes correction of motion artifacts occurring during in vivo imaging with laser-scanning microscopy, segmentation of imaged fields into regions of interest (ROIs), and extraction of signals from the segmented ROIs. We have also developed a graphical user interface (GUI) for manual editing of the automatically segmented ROIs and automated registration of ROIs across multiple imaging datasets. This software has been designed with flexibility in mind to allow for future extension with different analysis methods and potential integration with other packages. Software, documentation, and source code for the SIMA package and ROI Buddy GUI are freely available at http://www.losonczylab.org/sima/.

Parvalbumin-positive basket cells differentiate among hippocampal pyramidal cells.

CA1 pyramidal cells (PCs) are not homogeneous but rather can be grouped by molecular, morphological, and functional properties. However, less is known about synaptic sources differentiating PCs. Using paired recordings in vitro, two-photon Ca(2+) imaging in vivo, and computational modeling, we found that parvalbumin-expressing basket cells (PVBCs) evoked greater inhibition in CA1 PCs located in the deep compared to superficial layer of stratum pyramidale. In turn, analysis of reciprocal connectivity revealed more frequent excitatory inputs to PVBCs by superficial PCs, demonstrating bias in target selection by both the excitatory and inhibitory local connections in CA1. Additionally, PVBCs further segregated among deep PCs, preferentially innervating the amygdala-projecting PCs but receiving preferential excitation from the prefrontal cortex-projecting PCs, thus revealing distinct perisomatic inhibitory interactions between separate output channels. These results demonstrate the presence of heterogeneous PVBC-PC microcircuits, potentially contributing to the sparse and distributed structure of hippocampal network activity.

Dendritic inhibition in the hippocampus supports fear learning.

Fear memories guide adaptive behavior in contexts associated with aversive events. The hippocampus forms a neural representation of the context that predicts aversive events. Representations of context incorporate multisensory features of the environment, but must somehow exclude sensory features of the aversive event itself. We investigated this selectivity using cell type-specific imaging and inactivation in hippocampal area CA1 of behaving mice. Aversive stimuli activated CA1 dendrite-targeting interneurons via cholinergic input, leading to inhibition of pyramidal cell distal dendrites receiving aversive sensory excitation from the entorhinal cortex. Inactivating dendrite-targeting interneurons during aversive stimuli increased CA1 pyramidal cell population responses and prevented fear learning. We propose subcortical activation of dendritic inhibition as a mechanism for exclusion of aversive stimuli from hippocampal contextual representations during fear learning.

Anti-epileptogenesis: Electrophysiology, diffusion tensor imaging and behavior in a genetic absence model.

The beneficial effects of chronic and early pharmacological treatment with ethosuximide on epileptogenesis were studied in a genetic absence epilepsy model comorbid for depression. It was also investigated whether there is a critical treatment period and treatment length. Cortical excitability in the form of electrical evoked potentials, but also to cortico-thalamo-cortical network activity (spike-wave discharges, SWD and afterdischarges), white matter changes representing extra cortico-thalamic functions and depressive-like behavior were investigated. WAG/Rij rats received either ethosuximide for 2 months (post natal months 2-3 or 4-5), or ethosuximide for 4 months (2-5) in their drinking water, while control rats drank plain water. EEG measurements were made during treatment, and 6 days and 2 months post treatment. Behavioral test were also done 6 days post treatment. DTI was performed ex vivo post treatment. SWD were suppressed during treatment, and 6 days and 2 months post treatment in the 4 month treated group, as well as the duration of AD elicited by cortical electrical stimulation 6 days post treatment. Increased fractional anisotropy in corpus callosum and internal capsula on DTI was found, an increased P8 evoked potential amplitude and a decreased immobility in the forced swim test. Shorter treatments with ETX had no large effects on any parameter. Chronic ETX has widespread effects not only within but also outside the circuitry in which SWD are initiated and generated, including preventing epileptogenesis and reducing depressive-like symptoms. The treatment of patients before symptom onset might prevent many of the adverse consequences of chronic epilepsy.

Increased resting functional connectivity in spike-wave epilepsy in WAG/Rij rats.

PURPOSE: Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)-based resting functional connectivity is well suited for measuring slow correlated activity throughout brain networks. Epilepsy involves chronic changes in normal brain networks, and recent work demonstrated enhanced resting fMRI connectivity between the hemispheres in childhood absence epilepsy. An animal model of this phenomenon would be valuable for investigating fundamental mechanisms and testing therapeutic interventions. METHODS: We used fMRI-based resting functional connectivity for studying brain networks involved in absence epilepsy. Wistar Albino Glaxo rats from Rijswijk (WAG/Rij) exhibit spontaneous episodes of staring and unresponsiveness accompanied by spike-wave discharges (SWDs) resembling human absence seizures in behavior and electroencephalography (EEG). Simultaneous EEG-fMRI data in epileptic WAG/Rij rats in comparison to nonepileptic Wistar controls were acquired at 9.4 T. Regions showing cortical fMRI increases during SWDs were used to define reference regions for connectivity analysis to investigate whether chronic seizure activity is associated with changes in network resting functional connectivity. KEY FINDINGS: We observed high degrees of cortical-cortical correlations in all WAG/Rij rats at rest (when no SWDs were present), but not in nonepileptic controls. Strongest connectivity was seen between regions most intensely involved in seizures, mainly in the bilateral somatosensory and adjacent cortices. Group statistics revealed that resting interhemispheric cortical-cortical correlations were significantly higher in WAG/Rij rats compared to nonepileptic controls. SIGNIFICANCE: These findings suggest that activity-dependent plasticity may lead to long-term changes in epileptic networks even at rest. The results show a marked difference between the epileptic and nonepileptic animals in cortical-cortical connectivity, indicating that this may be a useful interictal biomarker associated with the epileptic state.

Symptoms of anxiety and depression in childhood absence epilepsy.

Childhood absence epilepsy (CAE) has been recently linked to a number of cognitive, behavioral, and emotional disorders. Identification of affective disorders (anxiety and depression) presents unique challenges in pediatric populations, and successful early intervention may significantly improve long-term developmental outcomes. The current study examined the specific anxiety and depression symptoms children with CAE experience, and explored the role of disease factors in the severity of their presentation. Forty-five subjects with CAE and 41 healthy matched controls, ages 6-16 years, participated in the study. The Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC) was completed by parents, and the Anxiety and Depression subscales were used to characterize problems. Item analysis within the subscales revealed that children with CAE demonstrated higher rates of symptoms of anxiety (nervousness and thought rumination) and depression (sadness and crying), as well as more general psychosocial problems including isolation and low self-esteem. Disease duration, intractability, and medication effects were not associated with higher rates of affective problems in this limited patient sample. Screening of patients with CAE for comorbid psychiatric disorders early by focusing on specific symptom profiles unique to this population may enhance overall treatment and developmental outcomes.

Impaired attention and network connectivity in childhood absence epilepsy.

Patients with childhood absence epilepsy (CAE) often demonstrate impaired interictal attention, even with control of their seizures. No previous study has investigated the brain networks involved in this impairment. We used the continuous performance task (CPT) of attentional vigilance and the repetitive tapping task (RTT), a control motor task, to examine interictal attention in 26 children with CAE and 22 matched healthy controls. Each subject underwent simultaneous 3T functional magnetic resonance imaging-electroencephalography (fMRI-EEG) and CPT/RTT testing. Areas of activation on fMRI during the CPT task were correlated with behavioral performance and used as seed regions for resting functional connectivity analysis. All behavioral measures reflecting inattention were significantly higher in patients. Correlation analysis revealed that impairment on all measures of inattention on the CPT task was associated with decreased medial frontal cortex (MFC) activation during CPT. In addition, analysis of resting functional connectivity revealed an overall decrease within an 'attention network' in patients relative to controls. Patients demonstrated significantly impaired connectivity between the right anterior insula/frontal operculum (In/FO) and MFC relative to controls. Our results suggest that there is impaired function in an attention network comprising anterior In/FO and MFC in patients with CAE. These findings provide an anatomical and functional basis for impaired interictal attention in CAE, which may allow the development of improved treatments targeted at these networks.

The default mode network and altered consciousness in epilepsy.

The default mode network has been hypothesized based on the observation that specific regions of the brain are consistently activated during the resting state and deactivated during engagement with task. The primary nodes of this network, which typically include the precuneus/posterior cingulate, the medial frontal and lateral parietal cortices, are thought to be involved in introspective and social cognitive functions. Interestingly, this same network has been shown to be selectively impaired during epileptic seizures associated with loss of consciousness. Using a wide range of neuroimaging and electrophysiological modalities, decreased activity in the default mode network has been confirmed during complex partial, generalized tonic-clonic, and absence seizures. In this review we will discuss these three seizure types and will focus on possible mechanisms by which decreased default mode network activity occurs. Although the specific mechanisms of onset and propagation differ considerably across these seizure types, we propose that the resulting loss of consciousness in all three types of seizures is due to active inhibition of subcortical arousal systems that normally maintain default mode network activity in the awake state. Further, we suggest that these findings support a general "network inhibition hypothesis", by which active inhibition of arousal systems by seizures in certain cortical regions leads to cortical deactivation in other cortical areas. This may represent a push-pull mechanism similar to that seen operating between cortical networks under normal conditions.

Impaired consciousness in temporal lobe seizures: role of cortical slow activity.

Impaired consciousness requires altered cortical function. This can occur either directly from disorders that impair widespread bilateral regions of the cortex or indirectly through effects on subcortical arousal systems. It has therefore long been puzzling why focal temporal lobe seizures so often impair consciousness. Early work suggested that altered consciousness may occur with bilateral or dominant temporal lobe seizure involvement. However, other bilateral temporal lobe disorders do not impair consciousness. More recent work supports a 'network inhibition hypothesis' in which temporal lobe seizures disrupt brainstem-diencephalic arousal systems, leading indirectly to depressed cortical function and impaired consciousness. Indeed, prior studies show subcortical involvement in temporal lobe seizures and bilateral frontoparietal slow wave activity on intracranial electroencephalography. However, the relationships between frontoparietal slow waves and impaired consciousness and between cortical slowing and fast seizure activity have not been directly investigated. We analysed intracranial electroencephalography recordings during 63 partial seizures in 26 patients with surgically confirmed mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Behavioural responsiveness was determined based on blinded review of video during seizures and classified as impaired (complex-partial seizures) or unimpaired (simple-partial seizures). We observed significantly increased delta-range 1-2 Hz slow wave activity in the bilateral frontal and parietal neocortices during complex-partial compared with simple-partial seizures. In addition, we confirmed prior work suggesting that propagation of unilateral mesial temporal fast seizure activity to the bilateral temporal lobes was significantly greater in complex-partial than in simple-partial seizures. Interestingly, we found that the signal power of frontoparietal slow wave activity was significantly correlated with the temporal lobe fast seizure activity in each hemisphere. Finally, we observed that complex-partial seizures were somewhat more common with onset in the language-dominant temporal lobe. These findings provide direct evidence for cortical dysfunction in the form of bilateral frontoparietal slow waves associated with impaired consciousness in temporal lobe seizures. We hypothesize that bilateral temporal lobe seizures may exert a powerful inhibitory effect on subcortical arousal systems. Further investigations will be needed to fully determine the role of cortical-subcortical networks in ictal neocortical dysfunction and may reveal treatments to prevent this important negative consequence of temporal lobe epilepsy.

Simultaneous EEG, fMRI, and behavior in typical childhood absence seizures.

PURPOSE: Absence seizures cause transient impairment of consciousness. Typical absence seizures occur in children, and are accompanied by 3-4-Hz spike-wave discharges (SWDs) on electroencephalography (EEG). Prior EEG-functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies of SWDs have shown a network of cortical and subcortical changes during these electrical events. However, fMRI during typical childhood absence seizures with confirmed impaired consciousness has not been previously investigated. METHODS: We performed EEG-fMRI with simultaneous behavioral testing in 37 children with typical childhood absence epilepsy (CAE). Attentional vigilance was evaluated by a continuous performance task (CPT), and simpler motor performance was evaluated by a repetitive tapping task (RTT). RESULTS: SWD episodes were obtained during fMRI scanning from 9 patients among the 37 studied. fMRI signal increases during SWDs were observed in the thalamus, frontal cortex, primary visual, auditory, somatosensory, and motor cortex, and fMRI decreases were seen in the lateral and medial parietal cortex, cingulate gyrus, and basal ganglia. Omission error rate (missed targets) with SWDs during fMRI was 81% on CPT and 39% on RTT. For those seizure epochs during which CPT performance was impaired, fMRI changes were seen in cortical and subcortical structures typically involved in SWDs, whereas minimal changes were observed for the few epochs during which performance was spared. DISCUSSION: These findings suggest that typical absence seizures involve a network of cortical-subcortical areas necessary for normal attention and primary information processing. Identification of this network may improve understanding of cognitive impairments in CAE, and may help guide development of new therapies for this disorder.

A prospective study of loss of consciousness in epilepsy using virtual reality driving simulation and other video games.

Patients with epilepsy are at risk of traffic accidents when they have seizures while driving. However, driving is an essential part of normal daily life in many communities, and depriving patients of driving privileges can have profound consequences for their economic and social well-being. In the current study, we collected ictal performance data from a driving simulator and two other video games in patients undergoing continuous video/EEG monitoring. We captured 22 seizures in 13 patients and found that driving impairment during seizures differed in terms of both magnitude and character, depending on the seizure type. Our study documents the feasibility of a prospective study of driving and other behaviors during seizures through the use of computer-based tasks. This methodology may be applied to further describe differential driving impairment in specific types of seizures and to gain data on anatomical networks disrupted in seizures that impair consciousness and driving safety.

Focal BOLD fMRI changes in bicuculline-induced tonic-clonic seizures in the rat.

Generalized tonic-clonic seizures cause widespread physiological changes throughout the cerebral cortex and subcortical structures in the brain. Using combined blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) at 9.4 T and electroencephalography (EEG), these changes can be characterized with high spatiotemporal resolution. We studied BOLD changes in anesthetized Wistar rats during bicuculline-induced tonic-clonic seizures. Bicuculline, a GABA(A) receptor antagonist, was injected systemically and seizure activity was observed on EEG as high-amplitude, high-frequency polyspike discharges followed by clonic paroxysmal activity of lower frequency, with mean electrographic seizure duration of 349 s. Our aim was to characterize the spatial localization, direction, and timing of BOLD signal changes during the pre-ictal, ictal and post-ictal periods. Group analysis was performed across seizures using paired t-maps of BOLD signal superimposed on high-resolution anatomical images. Regional analysis was then performed using volumes of interest to quantify BOLD timecourses. In the pre-ictal period we found focal BOLD increases in specific areas of somatosensory cortex (S1, S2) and thalamus several seconds before seizure onset. During seizures we observed BOLD increases in cortex, brainstem and thalamus and BOLD decreases in the hippocampus. The largest ictal BOLD increases remained in the focal regions of somatosensory cortex showing pre-ictal increases. During the post-ictal period we observed widespread BOLD decreases. These findings support a model in which "generalized" tonic-clonic seizures begin with focal changes before electrographic seizure onset, which progress to non-uniform changes during seizures, possibly shedding light on the etiology and pathophysiology of similar seizures in humans.