Epithelial-mesenchymal transition sensitizes breast cancer cells to cell death via the fungus-derived sesterterpenoid ophiobolin A.

The epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) imparts properties of cancer stem-like cells, including resistance to frequently used chemotherapies, necessitating the identification of molecules that induce cell death specifically in stem-like cells with EMT properties. Herein, we demonstrate that breast cancer cells enriched for EMT features are more sensitive to cytotoxicity induced by ophiobolin A (OpA), a sesterterpenoid natural product. Using a model of experimentally induced EMT in human mammary epithelial (HMLE) cells, we show that EMT is both necessary and sufficient for OpA sensitivity. Moreover prolonged, sub-cytotoxic exposure to OpA is sufficient to suppress EMT-imparted CSC features including sphere formation and resistance to doxorubicin. In vivo growth of CSC-rich mammary cell tumors, is suppressed by OpA treatment. These data identify a driver of EMT-driven cytotoxicity with significant potential for use either in combination with standard chemotherapy or for tumors enriched for EMT features.

Regulating Methylation at H3K27: A Trick or Treat for Cancer Cell Plasticity.

Properly timed addition and removal of histone 3 lysine 27 tri-methylation (H3K27me3) is critical for enabling proper differentiation throughout all stages of development and, likewise, can guide carcinoma cells into altered differentiation states which correspond to poor prognoses and treatment evasion. In early embryonic stages, H3K27me3 is invoked to silence genes and restrict cell fate. Not surprisingly, mutation or altered functionality in the enzymes that regulate this pathway results in aberrant methylation or demethylation that can lead to malignancy. Likewise, changes in expression or activity of these enzymes impact cellular plasticity, metastasis, and treatment evasion. This review focuses on current knowledge regarding methylation and de-methylation of H3K27 in cancer initiation and cancer cell plasticity.

Mathematical Characterization of Protein Sequences Using Patterns as Chemical Group Combinations of Amino Acids.

Comparison of amino acid sequence similarity is the fundamental concept behind the protein phylogenetic tree formation. By virtue of this method, we can explain the evolutionary relationships, but further explanations are not possible unless sequences are studied through the chemical nature of individual amino acids. Here we develop a new methodology to characterize the protein sequences on the basis of the chemical nature of the amino acids. We design various algorithms for studying the variation of chemical group transitions and various chemical group combinations as patterns in the protein sequences. The amino acid sequence of conventional myosin II head domain of 14 family members are taken to illustrate this new approach. We find two blocks of maximum length 6 aa as 'FPKATD' and 'Y/FTNEKL' without repeating the same chemical nature and one block of maximum length 20 aa with the repetition of chemical nature which are common among all 14 members. We also check commonality with another motor protein sub-family kinesin, KIF1A. Based on our analysis we find a common block of length 8 aa both in myosin II and KIF1A. This motif is located in the neck linker region which could be responsible for the generation of mechanical force, enabling us to find the unique blocks which remain chemically conserved across the family. We also validate our methodology with different protein families such as MYOI, Myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) and Rho-associated protein kinase (ROCK), Na+/K+-ATPase and Ca2+-ATPase. Altogether, our studies provide a new methodology for investigating the conserved amino acids' pattern in different proteins.

Molecular association of glucose-6-phosphate isomerase and pyruvate kinase M2 with glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase in cancer cells.

BACKGROUND: For a long time cancer cells are known for increased uptake of glucose and its metabolization through glycolysis. Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) is a key regulatory enzyme of this pathway and can produce ATP through oxidative level of phosphorylation. Previously, we reported that GAPDH purified from a variety of malignant tissues, but not from normal tissues, was strongly inactivated by a normal metabolite, methylglyoxal (MG). Molecular mechanism behind MG mediated GAPDH inhibition in cancer cells is not well understood. METHODS: GAPDH was purified from Ehrlich ascites carcinoma (EAC) cells based on its enzymatic activity. GAPDH associated proteins in EAC cells and 3-methylcholanthrene (3MC) induced mouse tumor tissue were detected by mass spectrometry analysis and immunoprecipitation (IP) experiment, respectively. Interacting domains of GAPDH and its associated proteins were assessed by in silico molecular docking analysis. Mechanism of MG mediated GAPDH inactivation in cancer cells was evaluated by measuring enzyme activity, Circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy, IP and mass spectrometry analyses. RESULT: Here, we report that GAPDH is associated with glucose-6-phosphate isomerase (GPI) and pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2) in Ehrlich ascites carcinoma (EAC) cells and also in 3-methylcholanthrene (3MC) induced mouse tumor tissue. Molecular docking analyses suggest C-terminal domain preference for the interaction between GAPDH and GPI. However, both C and N termini of PKM2 might be interacting with the C terminal domain of GAPDH. Expression of both PKM2 and GPI is increased in 3MC induced tumor compared with the normal tissue. In presence of 1 mM MG, association of GAPDH with PKM2 or GPI is not perturbed, but the enzymatic activity of GAPDH is reduced to 26.8 ± 5 % in 3MC induced tumor and 57.8 ± 2.3 % in EAC cells. Treatment of MG to purified GAPDH complex leads to glycation at R399 residue of PKM2 only, and changes the secondary structure of the protein complex. CONCLUSION: PKM2 may regulate the enzymatic activity of GAPDH. Increased enzymatic activity of GAPDH in tumor cells may be attributed to its association with PKM2 and GPI. Association of GAPDH with PKM2 and GPI could be a signature for cancer cells. Glycation at R399 of PKM2 and changes in the secondary structure of GAPDH complex could be one of the mechanisms by which GAPDH activity is inhibited in tumor cells by MG.

Phosphorylation of Nonmuscle myosin II-A regulatory light chain resists Sendai virus fusion with host cells.

Enveloped viruses enter host cells through membrane fusion and the cells in turn alter their shape to accommodate components of the virus. However, the role of nonmuscle myosin II of the actomyosin complex of host cells in membrane fusion is yet to be understood. Herein, we show that both (-) blebbistatin, a specific inhibitor of nonmuscle myosin II (NMII) and small interfering RNA markedly augment fusion of Sendai virus (SeV), with chinese hamster ovary cells and human hepatocarcinoma cells. Inhibition of RLC phosphorylation using inhibitors against ROCK, but not PKC and MRCK, or overexpression of phospho-dead mutant of RLC enhances membrane fusion. SeV infection increases cellular stiffness and myosin light chain phosphorylation at two hour post infection. Taken together, the present investigation strongly indicates that Rho-ROCK-NMII contractility signaling pathway may provide a physical barrier to host cells against viral fusion.

Regulation of nonmuscle myosin II during 3-methylcholanthrene induced dedifferentiation of C2C12 myotubes.

3-Methylcholanthrene (3MC) induces tumor formation at the site of injection in the hind leg of mice within 110 days. Recent reports reveal that the transformation of normal muscle cells to atypical cells is one of the causes for tumor formation, however the molecular mechanism behind this process is not well understood. Here, we show in an in vitro study that 3MC induces fragmentation of multinucleate myotubes into viable mononucleates. These mononucleates form colonies when they are seeded into soft agar, indicative of cellular transformation. Immunoblot analysis reveals that phosphorylation of myosin regulatory light chain (RLC20) is 5.6±0.5 fold reduced in 3MC treated myotubes in comparison to vehicle treated myotubes during the fragmentation of myotubes. In contrast, levels of myogenic factors such as MyoD, Myogenin and cell cycle regulators such as Cyclin D, Cyclin E1 remain unchanged as assessed by real-time PCR array and reverse transcriptase PCR analysis, respectively. Interestingly, addition of the myosin light chain kinase inhibitor, ML-7, enhances the fragmentation, whereas phosphatase inhibitor perturbs the 3MC induced fragmentation of myotubes. These results suggest that decrease in RLC20 phosphorylation may be associated with the fragmentation step of dedifferentiation.

The effect of including the C2 insert of nonmuscle myosin II-C on neuritogenesis.

The functional role of the C2 insert of nonmuscle myosin II-C (NM II-C) is poorly understood. Here, we report for the first time that the expression of the C2 insert-containing isoform, NM II-C1C2, is inducible in Neuro-2a cells during differentiation both at mRNA and protein levels. Immunoblot and RT-PCR analysis reveal that expression of NM II-C1C2 peaks between days 3 and 6 of differentiation. Localization of NM II-C1C2 in Neuro-2a cells suggests that the C2 insert-containing isoform is localized in the cytosol and along the neurites, specifically at the adherence point to substratum. Inhibition of endogenous NM II-C1C2 using siRNA decreases the neurite length by 43% compared with control cells treated with nonspecific siRNA. Time lapse image analysis reveals that neurites of C2-siRNA-treated cells have a net negative change in neurite length per minute, leading to a reduction of overall neurite length. During neuritogenesis, NM II-C1C2 can interact and colocalize with ß1-integrin in neurites. Altogether, these studies indicate that NM II-C1C2 may be involved in stabilizing neurites by maintaining their structure at adhesion sites.

Amphiphilic random copolymer vesicle induces differentiation of mouse C2C12 myoblasts.

Herein we report that vesicular assembly from a simple non-ionic amphiphilic random copolymer initiates extremely efficient myotube formation from C2C12 myoblast cells in standard growth media lacking horse serum. Control experiments with structurally related polymers and a small molecule suggest the absolute necessity of the vesicular assembly as well as the particular hydrophilic functionality in mediating such high yielding muscle cell generation. The LDH assay indicates that the membrane integrity is retained during cell-cell fusion. Expression of various myogenic factors such as MyoD, myogenin and P-21 has been examined in the presence of the polymersome and control molecules to rationalize this serendipitous discovery.

Increased expression of nonmuscle myosin IIs is associated with 3MC-induced mouse tumor.

Administration of the chemical carcinogen, 3-methylcholanthrene (3MC), in the hind leg induces the progressive formation of tumors in mice within 110 days. Previous reports suggest that transformation of muscle cells to atypical cells is one of the causes of tumor formation. Molecular events that lead to transformation of normal cells to atypical cells are not well understood. Here, we investigate the effect of 3MC on the expression of nonmuscle myosin IIs (NM IIs) which are known to be involved in cell migration, division and adhesion. Mass spectroscopy analysis reveals that tumor tissue contains 64.5% NM II-A, 34% II-B and only 1.5% II-C of total NM IIs, whereas these three isoforms of NM IIs are undetectable by mass spectroscopy in normal tissue associated with the tumor (NTAT) from the hind leg. Quantification of heavy chain mRNAs of NM II suggests that tumor tissue contains 25.7-fold and 19.03-fold more of NM II-A and II-B, respectively, compared with NTAT. Unlike NM II-B, which is detected only after tumor formation, II-A is detectable as early as day 7 after a second dose of 3MC. Immunofluorescence confocal microscopy reveals that fibroblast cells which are sparsely distributed in normal tissue are densely populated but of atypical shape in the tumor. These findings suggest that transformation of fibroblasts or non-fibroblast cells to atypical, cancerous cells is associated with increased levels of NM II-A and NM II-B expression in the 3MC-induced tumor mouse model. 3MC-induced transformation is further demonstrated in C2C12 myotubes.