Predicting the Presence of Active Schools: A National Survey of School Principals in the United States.

BACKGROUND: Principals are key to the promotion of physical activity (PA) in schools. The purpose of this study was to understand how school principals' PA values, behaviors, and individual and school characteristics were associated with the presence of an active school. METHODS: A representative sample of 1019 school principals in the United States was surveyed. Survey items addressed principals' values and behaviors associated with PA, individual and school demographic factors, such as years of experience and school level, and a single item asking whether principals perceived their school to be an active school (ie, provides students with opportunities to be physically active before, during, and after the school day). Significant variables from a cross-tabulation and chi-square analysis were added to a hierarchical logistic regression model to assess the predictive properties of principal values and behaviors as they relate to the presence of an active school. RESULTS: Approximately half of principals (47%) reported having an active school. The model significantly predicted the presence of an active school but accounted for only 6.6% of the total variance. Although values toward PA and more frequent personal PA behaviors were associated with the presence of an active school within the cross-tabulation and chi-square analysis, neither variable emerged as a significant predictor in the regression model. CONCLUSIONS: Principals' personal PA values and behaviors contribute to the presence of an active school, but other variables, including years of experience and school contextual factors, are more powerful predictors.

Health-Related Fitness Levels among Title I Elementary School Students.

Over the past few decades, studies have emphasized improving children's health by increasing health-related fitness levels. Despite the known benefits of health-related fitness in youth, studies have also highlighted a lack of physical activity opportunities for children living in low-income households. The purpose of this study was to investigate the health-related fitness levels of students attending Title I (low-income) elementary schools. A total of 77 elementary students (50.6% female; Mage = 10.0, SD = 0.827) from two Title I elementary schools in the western United States completed the FitnessGram assessments of aerobic capacity, muscular strength and endurance, and flexibility. Descriptive statistics were used to identify the number of students in the Healthy Fitness Zone (HFZ) based upon the FitnessGram HFZ Performance Standards. Less than 17% of students achieved the HFZ for aerobic capacity and only 31.2% achieved the HFZ for upper body strength and endurance. Students performed better for abdominal strength and endurance and flexibility with 55.8% and 68.8% achieving the HFZ, respectively. The results of this study offer insights into the health-related fitness levels of a unique population, students attending Title I schools. School health professionals, including physical education teachers, need to be aware of existing disparities and make efforts to systematically intervene.

A Systematic Review of Multi-Component Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program (CSPAP) Interventions.

OBJECTIVE: To identify, review, and describe multicomponent physical activity (PA) interventions in terms of: (a) number and combination of Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program (CSPAP) components, (b) study characteristics, and (c) primary outcomes. DATA SOURCE: Five electronic databases (i.e., PubMed, PsychInfo, Physical Education Index, Sport Discus, and ERIC). STUDY INCLUSION AND EXCLUSION CRITERIA: Included articles were peer-reviewed, written in English language, published since 1987, and included multicomponent school-based interventions. DATA EXTRACTION: Data items extracted were: school level, setting, CSPAP component description, health outcomes, academic outcomes, main conclusion, and reference. DATA SYNTHESIS: Included articles were synthesized by: (1) CSPAP components utilized, and (2) research outcome measured (i.e., health or academic). RESULTS: Across 32 studies, 11 included physical education plus 1 additional CSPAP component (PE + 1); 10 included PE + 2 additional CSPAP components; 8 included PE + 3 additional CSPAP components; and 1 included all 5 CSPAP components. Two other studies included 2 or 3 CSPAP components without PE. Most interventions targeted health outcomes (94%) rather than academic outcomes (6%). CONCLUSIONS: Multicomponent approaches aligned with CSPAPs are effective in promoting PA and other positive outcomes for youth in schools. Future research should seek to understand effects of CSPAP components on a variety of outcomes and settings.

Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program Policies and Practices Questionnaire (CSPAP-Q).

Purpose: The Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program (CSPAP) model has recently been adopted as a national framework for physical activity (PA) promotion in schools. As a result, there is a need to develop an instrument to help leaders of PA measure policies and practices across the five component areas of a CSPAP. To address this gap, our team systematically developed and assessed the psychometric properties of the CSPAP-Q, an instrument designed to assess school policies and practices related to the five components of CSPAP. Methods: The instrument development process began by reviewing existing school health and PA surveys. The Delphi method was then used to evaluate face and content validity through expert feedback. Thirty-eight physical education teachers completed the CSPAP-Q twice over a 14-day period to further establish validity and to assess test-retest reliability. Results: In total, 117 items were identified for the initial review. Upon completion of expert feedback, 22 items were eliminated and 66 items were revised. After reliability testing, three additional items were eliminated due to low test-retest agreement levels (Kappa <.40; non-significant χ2). Ninety-two items were retained in the final version of the CSPAP-Q and kappa values indicated moderate to substantial agreement among items. Conclusions: After validity and reliability testing, results suggest that the CSPAP-Q is a valid and reliable tool for assessing policies and practices related to CSPAP.

Recommendations for Administrators' Involvement in School-Based Health Promotion: A Scoping Review.

School administrator involvement is recognized as a key factor in the extent to which school health promotion programs and initiatives are successfully implemented. The aims of this scoping review are to: (a) Identify existing documents that contain recommendations regarding the involvement of school administrators in school-based health promotion; (b) distill and summarize the recommendations; (c) examine differences in the recommendations by targeted professional level, professional group, health promotion content focus, and by whether the recommendations are evidence-based or opinion-based; and (d) evaluate the research informing the recommendations. We drew upon the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines to conduct the review. Our team conducted a comprehensive literature search with no date or geographic restrictions from January 2018 through April 2018 using four electronic databases: Academic Search Complete, Google Scholar, Physical Education Index, and PubMed. Eligibility criteria included any online documents, in English, that contained recommendations targeting school administrators' (e.g., principals, assistant principals, superintendents) involvement (e.g., support, endorsement, advocacy) in school health programming (e.g., physical activity, nutrition, wellness). The search yielded a total of 1225 records, which we screened by title, then by abstract, and finally by full text, resulting in 61 records that met inclusion criteria. Data (e.g., recommendations, targeted contexts, targeted administrators) from these records were extracted for a content analysis. Included records contained 80 distinct recommendations, which we summarized into three themes (Collaboration, Advocacy, and Support) using a content analysis. Separate content analyses revealed no qualitative differences in the recommendations by professional level, professional group, or content focus, or by whether the recommendations were evidence-based or opinion-based. Twenty-one of the included records were peer-reviewed research articles. Using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT), we appraised qualitative research articles the highest and mixed methods research articles the lowest. This review provides a basis for future research and professional practice aiming to increase school administrators' involvement in school-based health promotion.

Implementation evaluation of a professional development program for comprehensive school physical activity leaders.

The purpose of this study was to conduct an implementation monitoring evaluation of a yearlong comprehensive school physical activity program (CSPAP) professional development program across eight multi-state physical education (PE) teacher cohorts. Mixed-method data were collected during a three-year implementation period via workshop attendance sheets and evaluations, post-workshop implementation plans and artifacts, and follow-up phone interviews to enumerate and evaluate the program's process of recruitment, reach, dose delivered, dose received, fidelity, and context. Recruitment strategies reached a total of 234 PE teacher attendees across eight workshops, with 77 PE teachers (primarily female, elementary, public school teachers) completing all program requirements. Facilitators among full program completers were participation incentives and network opportunities, while common inhibitors were difficulty with online technology and perceptions of added workload. Completers submitted implementation plans with at least three action steps, ranging from 4 to 7 months to accomplish, that predominately commenced with securing administration approval as the first step (81%), focused on implementing student physical activity initiatives beyond PE (76%), and evidenced with mostly picture artifacts (78%). Implementation was facilitated by the presence of multilevel support at school and an elevated image of PE and PE teachers at school, and was inhibited by scheduling constraints, unrealistic planning, and conflicting perceptions of physical activity and PE. Overall, this evaluation reveals unique perspectives of PE teachers regarding schoolwide PA promotion and informs future efforts to target and effectively support CSPAP leaders.

Effects of Sharing Data With Teachers on Student Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior in the Classroom.

BACKGROUND: Data-driven decision making is an accepted best practice in education, but teachers seldom reflect on data to drive their physical activity (PA) integration efforts. The purpose of this study was to explore the impact of a data-sharing intervention with classroom teachers on teacher-directed movement integration and students' PA and sedentary behavior. METHODS: Teacher-directed movement behaviors from 8 classroom teachers in 1 primary school were systematically observed during four 1-hour class periods before (pre) and after (post) an intervention in which teachers individually discussed student movement data with a trained interviewer. Teachers' K-2 students (N = 132) wore accelerometers for 10 school days both preintervention and postintervention. RESULTS: Multilevel mixed effects regression indicated a nonsignificant increase in teacher-directed movement from preintervention to postintervention (+7.42%, P = .48). Students' classroom time spent in moderate to vigorous PA increased (males: +2.41 min, P < .001; females: +0.84 min, P = .04) and sedentary time decreased (males: -9.90 min, P < .001; females: -7.98 min, P < .001) postintervention. Interview data inductively analyzed revealed teachers' perspectives, including their surprise at low student PA during the school day. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that sharing data with classroom teachers can improve student PA and decrease sedentary behavior at school.

State Physical Education Policy Changes From 2001 to 2016.

BACKGROUND: State policies influence the quantity and quality of educational programs delivered in schools. This study examined state physical education policy changes from 2001 to 2016 by analyzing data reported in The Shape of the Nation Report. METHODS: Policies related to state mandates for physical education, time/credit requirements, assessment and fitness testing requirements, adoption of state standards, and allowance of substitutions were analyzed over 5 editions of the report using repeated measures statistics. RESULTS: A majority of state physical education-related policies have not changed over the past 15 years despite calls by numerous public health agencies for enhanced physical education in schools. There was, however, a significant increase in the number of states adopting teaching standards and requiring assessment and fitness testing in physical education, mirroring a broader shift in education toward standards, assessment, and accountability. CONCLUSIONS: Despite improved rigor in physical education through the adoption of standards and assessment practices, physical education continues to be marginalized in schools by a lack of curricular time and inappropriate substitution policies. Stronger policies are needed for physical education to have a substantial impact on school health.

Effects of a Three-Tiered Intervention Model on Physical Activity and Fitness Levels of Elementary School Children.

Response to intervention (RtI) models are frequently used in schools to tailor academic instruction to the needs of students. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of using RtI to promote physical activity (PA) and fitness in one urban elementary school. Ninety-nine students in grades 2-5 participated in up to three tiers of intervention throughout the course of one school year. Tier one included 150 min/week of physical education (increased from 90 min/week the previous year) and coordinated efforts to improve school health. Tier two consisted of 30 min/week of small group instruction based on goal setting and social support. Tier three included an after-school program for parents and children focused on healthy living. PA, cardiovascular fitness, and body composition were assessed before and after the interventions using pedometers, a 20-m shuttle run, and height/weight measurements. From pre- to post-testing, PA remained relatively stable in tier one and increased by 2349 steps/day in tier two. Cardiovascular fitness increased in tiers one and two by 1.17 and 1.35 ml/kg/min, respectively. Although body mass index did not change, 17 of the 99 students improved their weight status over the course of the school year, resulting in an overall decline in the prevalence of overweight/obesity from 59.6 to 53.5 %. Preliminary results suggest that the RtI model can be an effective way to structure PA/health interventions in an elementary school setting.

The influence of physical education on physical activity levels of urban elementary students.

The purpose of this study was to examine the role of physical education in shaping physical activity patterns. Seventy-one Hispanic and African American elementary students participated in the study. Students attended one 30- and one 60-min physical education class weekly. Pedometer steps were used to estimate physical activity. Data suggest that students did not engage in enough physical activity on a daily basis to incur health benefits. There were significant step differences in 0-, 30-, and 60-min physical education days, with the most steps occurring on 60-min days. Results from the study suggest physical education may be an important source of physical activity for Hispanic and African American students, especially girls, and may influence participation in physical activity outside of class.

Changes in K-12 physical education programs from 2001 to 2006.

In this study, we investigated the changes in physical education programs from 2001 to 2006 based on an analysis of data reported in The Shape of the Nation Report: Status of Physical Education in the USA (National Association for Sport and Physical Education, 2006). Means and standard deviations for numeric variables in the reports were computed, and percentages were calculated for the categorical variables. The data indicated a significant increase from 2001 to 2006 in establishing state physical education standards. Mandated class size at all educational levels and required physical education units for high school graduation remained the same. The requirement for physical education assessment and mandated fitness testing did not increase significantly. Furthermore, there was no significant improvement in state regulations.

Urban minority ninth-grade students' health-related fitness knowledge.

The purpose of the study was to examine Hispanic and other minority ninth-grade students' health-related fitness (HRF) knowledge, using FitSmart, a standardized test for high school students. The test consisted of 50 weighted multiple choice items, measuring six subcontent components. Means and standard deviations of the overall scores and the subcontent scores were computed. The findings suggested that students demonstrated mastery of one subcontent component but failed to meet passing values for all other subcontents and overall HRF knowledge. Female students outscored their male counterparts, but there was no difference for ethnicity. More efforts are needed to ensure that Hispanic and other minority high school students master fundamental HRF knowledge.