Efficacy and safety of gluten peptide-based antigen-specific immunotherapy (Nexvax2) in adults with coeliac disease after bolus exposure to gluten (RESET CeD): an interim analysis of a terminated randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 2 study.

BACKGROUND: A gluten-free diet is insufficient to treat coeliac disease because intestinal injury persists and acute reactions with cytokine release follow gluten exposure. Nexvax2 is a specific immunotherapy using immunodominant peptides recognised by gluten-specific CD4+ T cells that might modify gluten-induced disease in coeliac disease. We aimed to assess the effects of Nexvax2 on gluten-induced symptoms and immune activation in patients with coeliac disease. METHODS: This was a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 2 trial done at 41 sites (29 community, one secondary, and 11 tertiary centres) in the USA, Australia, and New Zealand. Patients with coeliac disease aged 18-70 years who had excluded gluten for at least 1 year, were HLA-DQ2.5 positive, and had a worsening of symptoms after an unmasked 10 g vital gluten challenge were eligible for inclusion. Patients were stratified by HLA-DQ2.5 status (HLA-DQ2.5 non-homozygous vs homozygous). Patients who were non-homozygous were centrally (ICON; Dublin, Ireland) randomly assigned (1:1) to receive subcutaneous Nexvax2 (non-homozygous Nexvax2 group) or saline (0·9% sodium chloride; non-homozygous placebo group) twice a week escalating from 1 µg to 750 µg during the first 5 weeks followed by 11 weeks of maintenance therapy at 900 µg per dose. The exploratory homozygous group was centrally randomly assigned (2:1) to receive Nexvax2 (homozygous Nexvax2 group) or placebo (homozygous placebo group); patients who were homozygous received the same dosage as those who were non-homozygous. The primary endpoint was change in coeliac disease patient reported outcomes (total gastrointestinal domain) from pretreatment baseline to the day of masked bolus 10 g vital gluten challenge given in week 14 analysed in the non-homozygous intention-to-treat population. The trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT03644069. FINDINGS: Between Sept 21, 2018, and April 24, 2019, 383 volunteers were screened for inclusion, of whom 179 (47%; 133 [74%] women, 46 [26%] men; median age 41 years [IQR 33-55]) were randomly assigned. One (1%) of 179 patients was excluded from analysis due to misassignment of genotype. The non-homozygous Nexvax2 group included 76 patients, the non-homozygous placebo group included 78 patients, the homozygous Nexvax2 group included 16 patients, and the homozygous placebo group included eight patients. The study was discontinued after planned interim analysis of 66 patients who were non-homozygous. We report an unmasked post-hoc analysis of all available data for the primary endpoint and secondary symptom-based endpoints combining data from 67 (66 were assessed in the planned interim analysis for the primary endpoint). Mean change from baseline to day of first masked gluten challenge in total gastrointestinal score for the non-homozygous Nexvax2 group was 2·86 (SD 2·28) compared with 2·63 (2·07) for the non-homozygous placebo group (p=0·43). Adverse events were similar between all patients who received Nexvax2 and those who received placebo. Serious adverse events were reported in five (3%) of 178 patients (two [2%] of 92 who received Nexvax2 and three [4%] of 82 who received placebo). One patient in the non-homozygous Nexvax2 group had a serious adverse event that occurred during gluten challenge (left-sided mid-back muscle strain with imaging suggestive of partial left kidney infarction). Serious adverse events were reported for three (4%) of 78 patients in the non-homozygous placebo group (one each with exacerbation of asthma and appendicitis, and one who had forehead abscess, conjunctivitis, and folliculitis) and one (1%) patient in the non-homozygous Nexvax2 group developed a pulmonary embolism. The most frequent adverse events in all 92 patients who received Nexvax2 compared with all 86 patients who received placebo were nausea (44 [48%] of 92 patients who received Nexvax2 vs 29 (34%) of 86 patients who received placebo), diarrhoea (32 [35%] vs 25 [29%]), abdominal pain (31 [34%] vs 27 [31%]), headache 32 [35%] vs 20 [23%]), and fatigue (24 [26%] vs 31 [36%]). INTERPRETATION: Nexvax2 did not reduce acute gluten-induced symptoms. Masked bolus vital gluten challenge provides an alternative to extended gluten challenge in efficacy studies for coeliac disease. FUNDING: ImmusanT.

High incidence of inflammatory bowel disease in Northern Australia: a prospective community population-based Australian incidence study in the Mackay-Isaac-Whitsunday region.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: To determine the incidence of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) in the Mackay-Isaac-Whitsunday region in Northern Queensland (-21.14° S) and to allow a comparison with Southern Australian and New Zealand data (Geelong, Australia -38.14° S; Tasmania -41.43° S and -42.88° S (Launceston and Hobart) and Canterbury, New Zealand -43.46 °S). DESIGN: A prospective observational community population-based IBD study was conducted between 1 June 2017 and 31 May 2018. OUTCOME MEASURES: Primary includes the crude annual incidence rate of IBD, Crohn's disease (CD), ulcerative colitis (UC) and inflammatory bowel disease-unclassified (IBDU), while secondary includes disease phenotype and behaviour. RESULTS: Fifty-six new cases of IBD were identified. Twenty-three were CD, 30 were UC and 3 were IBDU. The crude annual incidence rate per 100 000 for IBD, CD, UC and IBDU were 32.2 (95% confidence interval (CI): 24.78-41.84), 13.23 (95% CI: 8.79-19.90), 17.25 (95% CI: 12.06-24.67) and 1.73 (95% CI: 0.56-5.35). When directly age-standardised to the World Health Organisation Standard Population Distribution, the overall CD, UC and IBDU incidence were 13.19, 17.34 and 1.85 per 100 000, with an overall age-standardised IBD incidence of 32.38. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first study to define the incidence of IBD in a Northern Australian cohort and to allow a comparison between North and Southern Australia. The IBD crude is the highest reported in Australia. Like others, we found a high and low incidence of upper gastrointestinal Crohn's disease and complicated disease at diagnosis respectively, likely reflective of the increased availability and early uptake of endoscopic procedures.

Patient factors influencing acute gluten reactions and cytokine release in treated coeliac disease.

BACKGROUND: Patients with coeliac disease (CD) commonly report a variety of adverse symptoms to gluten, but descriptions of the symptomatic response in the literature may have been confounded by the presence of food components such as fermentable carbohydrates (FODMAPs) causing symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome independent of gluten. In recent unmasked and masked low FODMAP gluten challenge studies in small groups of treated CD patients, nausea and vomiting were shown to be the key symptoms associated with serum interleukin (IL)-2 release. Our objective was to utilise a large and diverse cohort of people with CD undertaking a standardised gluten food challenge to characterise the demographic, genetic and clinical factors influencing the severity and timing of acute gluten reactions and IL-2 production. METHODS: A total of 295 adults treated for CD were observed for 6 h after an unmasked food challenge consisting of 10 g vital wheat gluten (low in FODMAPs) in 100 ml water. Assessments included patient-reported outcomes, serum IL-2 and adverse events. Responses were analysed according to patient characteristics, HLA-DQ genotype, duodenal histology and response to a second gluten challenge. RESULTS: Peak symptom severity was at 3 h (median severity 5/10). Peak IL-2 was at 4 h (median 4 pg/ml, range undetectable to 1028 pg/ml). Older age, older age at diagnosis, HLA-DQ2.5 positivity and homozygosity for HLA-DQB1*02 were each significantly associated with IL-2 elevations after gluten. Patients positive for HLA-DQ2.5, DQ8, DQ2.2 or DQ7 showed elevated IL-2 after gluten. Patient factors were not significantly associated with severity of digestive symptoms, but symptoms were correlated to one another and serum IL-2. Gluten challenge after 5 months caused more vomiting and higher IL-2 levels, but responses correlated with the first. CONCLUSIONS: Gluten-induced symptoms and cytokine release is common in adults with treated CD. Age, genetics and previous response to gluten predict these acute reactions to gluten challenge. Structured symptom assessment and serum IL-2 after standardised gluten challenge may inform on patient diagnosis, the role of gluten in symptomatology and the need for adjunctive treatment. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov , NCT03644069 Registered 21 May 2018.

Masked bolus gluten challenge low in FODMAPs implicates nausea and vomiting as key symptoms associated with immune activation in treated coeliac disease.

BACKGROUND: In patients with coeliac disease, FODMAPs in gluten-containing foods, and participant anticipation of a harmful ('nocebo') effect, may contribute to acute symptoms after gluten challenge. AIM: To establish acute gluten-specific symptoms linked to immune activation in coeliac disease METHODS: We included 36 coeliac disease patients on a gluten-free diet receiving placebo in the RESET CeD trial. Double-blind, bolus vital wheat gluten (~6-g gluten protein) and sham challenges low in FODMAPs were consumed 2 weeks apart. Assessments included daily Coeliac Disease Patient Reported Outcome (CeD PRO) symptom scores (0-10), adverse events and serum interleukin-2 (baseline and 4 hours). RESULTS: Median CeD PRO score for nausea increased most (sham: 0 vs gluten: 5.5; P < .001). Apart from tiredness (1 vs 4, P = .005) and headache (0 vs 2, P = .002), changes in other symptoms were small or absent. Only nausea increased significantly in occurrence with gluten (11% vs 69%, P < .001). Without nausea, only tiredness and flatulence were common after gluten. Nausea (6% vs 61%, P < .001; median onset: 1:34 hours) and vomiting (0% vs 44%, P < .001; 1:51 hours) were the only adverse events more common with gluten than sham. Interleukin-2 was always below the level of quantitation (0.5 pg/mL) at baseline, and after sham. Interleukin-2 was elevated after gluten in 97% of patients (median fold-change: 20), and correlated with severity of nausea (rs  = .49, P = .0025) and occurrence of vomiting (P = .0005). CONCLUSIONS: Nausea and vomiting are relatively specific indicators of acute gluten ingestion, and correlate with immune activation. IBS-like symptoms without nausea are unlikely to indicate recent gluten exposure.

Elevated serum interleukin-2 after gluten correlates with symptoms and is a potential diagnostic biomarker for coeliac disease.

BACKGROUND: Coeliac disease patients on a gluten-free diet experience reactions to gluten, but these are not well characterised or understood. Systemic cytokine release was recently linked to reactivation of gluten immunity in coeliac disease. AIM: To define the nature and time-course of symptoms and interleukin-2 changes specific for coeliac disease patients. METHODS: 25 coeliac disease patients on a gluten-free diet and 25 healthy volunteers consumed a standardised 6 gram gluten challenge. Coeliac Disease Patient-Reported Outcome survey and global digestive symptom assessment were completed hourly up to 6 hours after gluten. Adverse events over 48 hours were recorded. Serum interleukin-2 was measured at baseline, and 2, 4 and 6 hours. RESULTS: Serum interleukin-2 was always undetectable in healthy controls, whereas it was undetectable at baseline and elevated >0.5 pg/ml at 4 hours in 92% of coeliac disease patients. All patient-reported outcome severity scores increased significantly after gluten in coeliac disease patients (P < .001 Wilcoxon signed rank test), but not in controls. Symptoms began after 1 hour, and peaked in the third. Nausea and vomiting characterised severe reactions, but mild reactions were limited to headache and tiredness. Peak interleukin-2 correlated with symptom severity, particularly for nausea and vomiting. CONCLUSIONS: Serum interleukin-2 elevations correlate with timing and severity of symptoms after gluten in coeliac disease. Standardised bolus gluten food challenge and interleukin-2 assessment could provide a valuable clinical test to monitor and diagnose coeliac disease in patients established on a gluten-free diet.

Randomised clinical trial: a placebo-controlled study of subcutaneous or intradermal NEXVAX2, an investigational immunomodulatory peptide therapy for coeliac disease.

BACKGROUND: Nexvax2 contains three gluten-derived peptides, intended to tolerize coeliac disease patients to gluten. Sequences cover six epitopes that trigger immune activation in human leucocyte antigen-DQ2.5-positive patients, most notably after an initial dose. Patients experience gastrointestinal symptoms with increases in serum interleukin-2. Consistent with Nexvax2's induction of non-responsiveness, reactivity disappears after repeated doses, or is avoided with gradual dose escalation. Early clinical trials used intradermal dosing, but pharmacokinetics and rapid onset of effect suggest that subcutaneous delivery may also be effective. AIMS: To document the relative bioavailability of Nevax2 peptides after subcutaneous and intradermal dosing, and the tolerability and ability of subcutaneous dosing to induce non-responsiveness to Nexvax2 peptides. METHODS: A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study was conducted to assess plasma pharmacokinetics after subcutaneous and intradermal Nexvax2 dosing in HLA DQ2.5-positive patients, who had symptoms after an oral gluten challenge. Randomisation was to semi-weekly Nexvax2 (n = 12) or placebo (n = 2) injections, over a 5-week subcutaneous dose escalation and 2-week maintenance period, the latter with four doses of 900 µg, two subcutaneous and two intradermal. Post-dose circulating peptide and interleukin-2 levels were assessed. Investigators recorded adverse events experienced by patients. RESULTS: Subcutaneous dosing resulted in slightly greater exposure. Interleukin-2 responses were seen with the gluten challenge but not after subcutaneous or intradermal dosing of 900 µg. Adverse events were generally mild and self-limited. CONCLUSIONS: Subcutaneous and intradermal dosing of Nexvax2 yield similar bioavailability of constituent peptides; subcutaneous dose escalation avoids an immune response to dominant gluten epitopes.

Epitope-Specific Immunotherapy Targeting CD4-Positive T Cells in Celiac Disease: Safety, Pharmacokinetics, and Effects on Intestinal Histology and Plasma Cytokines with Escalating Dose Regimens of Nexvax2 in a Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Phase 1 Study.

BACKGROUND: Nexvax2® is a novel, peptide-based, epitope-specific immunotherapy intended to be administered by regular injections at dose levels that increase the threshold for clinical reactivity to natural exposure to gluten and ultimately restore tolerance to gluten in patients with celiac disease. Celiac disease patients administered fixed intradermal doses of Nexvax2 become unresponsive to the HLA-DQ2·5-restricted gluten epitopes in Nexvax2, but gastrointestinal symptoms and cytokine release mimicking gluten exposure, that accompany the first dose, limit the maximum tolerated dose to 150µg. Our aim was to test whether stepwise dose escalation attenuated the first dose effect of Nexvax2 in celiac disease patients. METHODS: We conducted a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial at four community sites in Australia (3) and New Zealand (1) in HLA-DQ2·5 genotype positive adults with celiac disease who were on a gluten-free diet. Participants were assigned to cohort 1 if they were HLA-DQ2·5 homozygotes; other participants were assigned to cohort 2, or to cohort 3 subsequent to completion of cohort 2. Manual central randomization without blocking was used to assign treatment for each cohort. Initially, Nexvax2-treated participants in cohorts 1 and 2 received an intradermal dose of 30µg (consisting of 10µg of each constituent peptide), followed by 60µg, 90µg, 150µg, and then eight doses of 300µg over six weeks, but this was amended to include doses of 3µg and 9µg and extended over a total of seven weeks. Nexvax2-treated participants in cohort 3 received doses of 3µg, 9µg, 30µg, 60µg, 90µg, 150µg, 300µg, 450µg, 600µg, 750µg, and then eight of 900µg over nine weeks. The dose interval was 3 or 4days. Participants, care providers, data managers, sponsor personnel, and study site personnel were blinded to treatment assignment. The primary outcome was the number of adverse events and percentage of participants with adverse events during the treatment period. This completed trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT02528799. FINDINGS: From the 73 participants who we screened from 19 August 2015 to 31 October 2016, 24 did not meet eligibility criteria, and 36 were ultimately randomized and received study drug. For cohort 1, seven participants received Nexvax2 (two with the starting dose of 30µg and then five at 3µg) and three received placebo. For cohort 2, 10 participants received Nexvax2 (four with starting dose of 30µg and then six at 3µg) and four received placebo. For cohort 3, 10 participants received Nexvax2 and two received placebo. All 36 participants were included in safety and immune analyses, and 33 participants completed treatment and follow-up; in cohort 3, 11 participants were assessed and included in pharmacokinetics and duodenal histology analyses. Whereas the maximum dose of Nexvax2 had previously been limited by adverse events and cytokine release, no such effect was observed when dosing escalated from 3µg up to 300µg in HLA-DQ2·5 homozygotes or to 900µg in HLA-DQ2.5 non-homozygotes. Adverse events with Nexvax2 treatment were less common in cohorts 1 and 2 with the starting dose of 3µg (72 for 11 participants) than with the starting dose of 30µg (91 for six participants). Adverse events during the treatment period in placebo-treated participants (46 for nine participants) were similar to those in Nexvax2-treated participants when the starting dose was 3µg in cohort 1 (16 for five participants), cohort 2 (56 for six participants), and cohort 3 (44 for 10 participants). Two participants in cohort 2 and one in cohort 3 who received Nexvax2 starting at 3µg did not report any adverse event, while the other 33 participants experienced at least one adverse event. One participant, who was in cohort 1, withdrew from the study due to adverse events, which included abdominal pain graded moderate or severe and associated with nausea after receiving the starting dose of 30µg and one 60µg dose. The most common treatment-emergent adverse events in the Nexvax2 participants were headache (52%), diarrhoea (48%), nausea (37%), abdominal pain (26%), and abdominal discomfort (19%). Administration of Nexvax2 at dose levels from 150µg to 900µg preceded by dose escalation was not associated with elevations in plasma cytokines at 4h. Nexvax2 treatment was associated with trends towards improved duodenal histology. Plasma concentrations of Nexvax2 peptides were dose-dependent. INTERPRETATION: We show that antigenic peptides recognized by CD4-positive T cells in an autoimmune disease can be safely administered to patients at high maintenance dose levels without immune activation if preceded by gradual dose escalation. These findings facilitate efficacy studies that test high-dose epitope-specific immunotherapy in celiac disease.

Epitope-specific immunotherapy targeting CD4-positive T cells in coeliac disease: two randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 1 studies.

BACKGROUND: A gluten-free diet is the only means to manage coeliac disease, a permanent immune intolerance to gluten. We developed a therapeutic vaccine, Nexvax2, designed to treat coeliac disease. Nexvax2 is an adjuvant-free mix of three peptides that include immunodominant epitopes for gluten-specific CD4-positive T cells. The vaccine is intended to engage and render gluten-specific CD4-positive T cells unresponsive to further antigenic stimulation. We assessed the safety and pharmacodynamics of the vaccine in patients with coeliac disease on a gluten-free diet. METHODS: We did two randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 1 studies at 12 community sites in Australia, New Zealand, and the USA, in HLA-DQ2·5-positive patients aged 18-70 years who had coeliac disease and were on a gluten-free diet. In the screening period for ascending dose cohorts, participants were randomly assigned (1:1) by central randomisation with a simple block method to a double-blind crossover, placebo-controlled oral gluten challenge. Participants with a negative interferon γ release assay to Nexvax2 peptides after the screening oral gluten challenge were discontinued before dosing. For the biopsy cohorts, the screening period included an endoscopy, and participants with duodenal histology who had a Marsh score of greater than 1 were discontinued before dosing. Participants were subsequently randomly assigned to either Nexvax2 or placebo in ascending dose cohorts (2:1) and in biopsy cohorts (1:1) by central randomisation with a simple block method. In the three-dose study, participants received either Nexvax2 60 µg, 90 µg, or 150 µg weekly, or placebo over 15 days; in a fourth biopsy cohort, patients received either Nexvax2 at the maximum tolerated dose (MTD) or placebo. In the 16-dose study, participants received Nexvax2 150 µg or 300 µg or placebo twice weekly over 53 days; in a third biopsy cohort, patients also received either Nexvax2 at the MTD or placebo. In the 4-week post-treatment period, ascending dose cohorts underwent a further double-blind crossover, placebo-controlled oral gluten challenge, which had a fixed sequence, and biopsy cohorts had a gastroscopy with duodenal biopsies and quantitative histology within 2 weeks without oral gluten challenge. Participants, investigators, and study staff were masked to the treatment assignment, except for the study pharmacist. The primary endpoint was the number and percentage of adverse events in the treatment period in an intention-to-treat analysis. Both trials were completed and closed before data analysis. Trials were registered with the Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry, numbers ACTRN12612000355875 and ACTRN12613001331729. FINDINGS: Participants were enrolled from Nov 28, 2012, to Aug 14, 2014, in the three-dose study, and from Aug 3, 2012, to Sept 10, 2013, in the 16-dose study. Overall, 62 (57%) of 108 participants were randomly assigned after oral gluten challenge and 20 (71%) of 28 participants were randomly assigned after endoscopy. In the three-dose study, nine participants were randomly allocated to Nexvax2 60 µg and three to placebo (first cohort), nine were allocated to Nexvax2 90 µg and four to placebo (second cohort), eight were allocated to Nexvax2 150 µg and four to placebo (third cohort), and three were allocated to Nexvax2 150 µg and three to placebo (biopsy cohort). In the 16-dose study, eight participants were randomly allocated to Nexvax2 150 µg and four to placebo (first cohort), ten were allocated to Nexvax2 300 µg and three to placebo (second cohort), and seven were allocated to Nexvax2 150 µg and seven to placebo (biopsy cohort). The MTD for Nexvax2 was 150 µg because of transient, acute gastrointestinal adverse events with onset 2-5 h after initial doses of the vaccine, similar to those caused by gluten ingestion. In the ascending dose cohorts in the three-dose study, six (55%) of 11 placebo recipients, five (56%) of nine who received Nexvax2 60 µg, seven (78%) of nine who received Nexvax2 90 µg, and five (63%) of eight who received Nexvax2 150 µg had at least one treatment-emergent adverse event, as did all three (100%) placebo recipients and one (33%) of three Nexvax2 150 µg recipients in the biopsy cohort. In the ascending dose cohorts of the 16-dose study, five (71%) of seven placebo-treated participants, six (75%) of eight who received Nexvax2 150 µg, and all ten (100%) who received Nexvax2 300 µg had at least one treatment-emergent adverse event, as did six (86%) of seven placebo recipients and five (71%) of seven Nexvax2 150 µg recipients in the biopsy cohort. Vomiting, nausea, and headache were the only treatment-emergent adverse events that occurred in at least 5% of participants in either study. Among participants given the MTD, eight gastrointestinal treatment-emergent adverse events occurred in four (50%) of eight participants in the third cohort and none (0%) of three participants in the biopsy cohort in the three-dose study, and five events occurred in five (63%) of eight participants in the first cohort and three events in two (29%) of seven participants in the biopsy cohort of the 16-dose study. Median villous height to crypt depth ratio in distal duodenal biopsies was not significantly different between those who received the vaccine at the MTD on either schedule and those who received placebo. Of the participants who completed the post-treatment oral gluten challenge per protocol, interferon γ release assay to Nexvax2 peptides was negative (responders to treatment) in two (22%) of nine placebo-treated participants in the three-dose study versus two (33%) of six who received Nexvax2 60 µg, five (63%) of eight who received Nexvax2 90 µg, and six (100%) of six who received Nexvax2 150 µg (p=0·007); in the 16-dose study, none (0%) of five placebo-treated participants had a negative assay versus six (75%) of eight who received Nexvax2 150 µg (p=0·021). INTERPRETATION: The MTD of Nexvax2 was 150 µg for twice weekly intradermal administration over 8 weeks, which modified immune responsiveness to Nexvax2 peptides without deterioration in duodenal histology. The gastrointestinal symptoms that followed the first intradermal administration of the vaccine resembled those associated with oral gluten challenge. These findings support continued clinical development of this potential therapeutic vaccine for coeliac disease. FUNDING: ImmusanT.

Small bowel endoscopy and coeliac disease.

Coeliac disease (CD) is a gluten-responsive, chronic inflammatory enteropathy that shares many features with classical autoimmune diseases. Coeliac disease affects about 1-2% of Caucasians, North Africans and Asians who possess the necessary susceptibility genes encoding HLA DQ2 or HLA DQ8. It is not only unique among the autoimmune diseases in that the precise trigger (gluten from wheat, rye and barley) has been identified, but also in that it has lent itself well to advancements in endoscopic imaging. Since its introduction, flexible endoscopy has allowed tissue to be collected from the small bowel with relative ease and safety, and recently has facilitated direct imaging and sampling of the entire small intestine. It is now fifty years since the Crosby capsule first allowed clinicians the ability to non-surgically biopsy the small bowel leading to an enhanced diagnosis of coeliac disease. The introduction of wireless video capsule endoscopy (VCE), small bowel enteroscopy and in particular double balloon enteroscopy (DBE), have expedited the accurate diagnosis of coeliac disease and its more serious complications such as small bowel adenocarcinoma, refractory coeliac disease type II (RCDII) and enteropathy associated T cell lymphoma (EATL).

Effect of hookworm infection on wheat challenge in celiac disease--a randomised double-blinded placebo controlled trial.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: The association between hygiene and prevalence of autoimmune disease has been attributed in part to enteric helminth infection. A pilot study of experimental infection with the hookworm Necator americanus was undertaken among a group of otherwise healthy people with celiac disease to test the potential of the helminth to suppress the immunopathology induced by gluten. METHODS: In a 21-week, double-blinded, placebo-controlled study, we explored the effects of N. americanus infection in 20 healthy, helminth-naïve adults with celiac disease well controlled by diet. Staged cutaneous inoculations with 10 and 5 infective 3(rd) stage hookworm larvae or placebo were performed at week-0 and -12 respectively. At week-20, a five day oral wheat challenge equivalent to 16 grams of gluten per day was undertaken. Primary outcomes included duodenal Marsh score and quantification of the immunodominant α-gliadin peptide (QE65)-specific systemic interferon-γ-producing cells by ELISpot pre- and post-wheat challenge. RESULTS: Enteric colonisation with hookworm established in all 10 cases, resulting in transiently painful enteritis in 5. Chronic infection was asymptomatic, with no effect on hemoglobin levels. Although some duodenal eosinophilia was apparent, hookworm-infected mucosa retained a healthy appearance. In both groups, wheat challenge caused deterioration in both primary and several secondary outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Experimental N. americanus infection proved to be safe and enabled testing its effect on a range of measures of the human autoimmune response. Infection imposed no obvious benefit on pathology. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT00671138.