MS4A4A: a novel cell surface marker for M2 macrophages and plasma cells.

MS4A4A is a member of the membrane-spanning, four domain family, subfamily A (MS4A) that includes CD20 (MS4A1), FcRß (MS4A2) and Htm4 (MS4A3). Like the first three members of this family, transcription of MS4A4A appears to be limited to hematopoietic cells. To evaluate expression of the MS4A4A protein in hematopoietic cell lineages and subsets we generated monoclonal antibodies against extracellular epitopes for use in flow cytometry. In human peripheral blood we found that MS4A4A is expressed at the plasma membrane in monocytes but not in granulocytes or lymphocytes. In vitro differentiation of monocytes demonstrated that MS4A4A is expressed in immature but not activated dendritic cells, and in macrophages generated in the presence of interleukin-4 ('alternatively activated' or M2 macrophages) but not by interferon-γ and lipopolysaccharide ('classically' activated or M1 macrophages). MS4A4A was expressed in the U937 monocytic cell line only after differentiation. In normal bone marrow, MS4A4A was expressed in mature monocytes but was undetected, or detected at only a low level, in myeloid/monocytic precursors, as well as their malignant counterparts in patients with various subtypes of myeloid leukemia. Although MS4A4A was not expressed in healthy B lymphocytes, it was highly expressed in normal plasma cells, CD138+ cells from multiple myeloma patients, and bone marrow B cells from a patient with mantle cell lymphoma. These findings suggest immunotherapeutic potential for MS4A4A antibodies in targeting alternatively activated macrophages such as tumor-associated macrophages, and in the treatment of multiple myeloma and mantle cell lymphoma.

Rapid activation and hepatic recruitment of innate-like regulatory B cells after invariant NKT cell stimulation in mice.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells are present within the liver and have been implicated in the development of many liver diseases. Upon activation by glycolipid ligands (including α-galactosylceramide; αGalCer), hepatic iNKT cells produce numerous cytokines and recruit both pro-inflammatory and regulatory immune cells. However, the involvement of B cells in this process is poorly defined. METHODS: Wild-type (male, C57BL/6), B cell deficient, or B cell depleted mice were injected with αGalCer or vehicle, hepatic B cell phenotype and liver injury was subsequently determined. RESULTS: iNKT cell activation resulted in liver injury and the rapid activation and hepatic recruitment of B cells (mainly innate-like B1 and MZ-like B cells) from the spleen and peritoneal cavity. B cells recruited to the liver produce IL-10 and TGFß, and express cell surface CD73 (ectoenzyme which generates adenosine). B cell deficient mice developed augmented αGalCer-induced hepatitis, enhanced neutrophil recruitment and striking alterations in the hepatic cytokine milieu. αGalCer-induced hepatitis was unaltered in IL-10(-/-) mice, or after TGFß neutralization, but was significantly worsened in mice treated with a CD73 inhibitor. CONCLUSIONS: iNKT cell stimulation recruits innate-like regulatory B cells to the liver which suppress hepatic inflammation through IL-10 and TGFß1 independent mechanisms, but involve CD73 activity. These findings highlight an important inflammation suppressing role for B cells at early time points during the development of an innate immune response within the liver, and represent a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of liver disease.

Reduced T-dependent humoral immunity in CD20-deficient mice.

CD20 is a tetraspanning membrane protein expressed on B lymphocytes. CD20 deficiency in both mice and humans has recently been shown to have deleterious effects on Ab responses to T-independent Ags; however, no effect on T-dependent immunity has been reported. In this study, we used a Cd20⁻/⁻ mouse line to evaluate Ab responses to adeno-associated virus and SRBCs. The neutralizing Ab response to adeno-associated virus was significantly reduced by CD20 deficiency; both primary (IgM) and secondary (IgG1 and IgG2b) responses to SRBC were also reduced in Cd20⁻/⁻ mice, and this was associated with a reduction in the number of germinal center B cells. A successful humoral response requires the integration of intracellular signaling networks that critically rely on calcium mobilization. In this article, we confirm that BCR-mediated calcium mobilization is reduced in Cd20⁻/⁻ murine B cells after BCR stimulation in vitro, and further show that the reduction is due to an effect on calcium influx rather than calcium release from intracellular stores. Calcium-dependent upregulation of CD69 was impaired in CD20-deficient B cells, as was upregulation of CD86. Altogether, this study demonstrates a role for CD20 in B cell activation and T-dependent humoral immunity.

Expression of MS4A and TMEM176 Genes in Human B Lymphocytes.

The MS4A gene family in humans includes CD20 and at least 15 other genes. CD20 exists as homo-oligomers in the plasma membrane, however different MS4A proteins expressed in the same cell may hetero-oligomerize. Given the importance of CD20 in B-cell function and as a therapeutic target, we sought to explore the potential for CD20 hetero-oligomerization with other MS4A proteins. We investigated expression in primary human B-cells of the four MS4A genes previously shown to be expressed in human B-cell lines (MS4A4A, MS4A6A, MS4A7, MS4A8B), as well as two genes comprising the closely related TMEM176 gene family, with a view to identifying candidates for future investigation at the protein level. TMEM176A and TMEM176B transcripts were either not detected, or were detected at relatively low levels in a minority of donor B-cell samples. MS4A4A and MS4A8B transcripts were not detected in any normal B-cell sample. MS4A6A and MS4A7 transcripts were detected at low levels in most samples, however the corresponding proteins were not at the plasma membrane when expressed as GFP conjugates in BJAB cells. We also examined expression of these genes in chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), and found that it was similar to normal B-cells with two exceptions. First, whereas MS4A4A expression was undetected in normal B-cells, it was expressed in 1/14 CLL samples. Second, compared to expression levels in normal B-cells, MS4A6A transcripts were elevated in 4/14 CLL samples. In summary, none of the MS4A/TMEM176 genes tested was expressed at high levels in normal or in most CLL B-cells. MS4A6A and MS4A7 were expressed at low levels in most B-cell samples, however the corresponding proteins may not be positioned at the plasma membrane. Altogether, these data suggest that CD20 normally does not form hetero-oligomers with other MS4A proteins and that there are unlikely to be other MS4A proteins in CLL that might provide useful alternate therapeutic targets.

Quantification of CD20 mRNA and protein levels in chronic lymphocytic leukemia suggests a post-transcriptional defect.

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia is less effectively treated than other B cell malignancies with the anti-CD20 agent, rituximab, presumably due, at least in part, to low CD20 expression. CD20 expression is typically measured by flow cytometry, which may not be quantitative. This study was undertaken to measure total CD20 protein in CLL B cells using quantitative immunoblot analysis. The results demonstrated that total CD20 protein levels were consistently decreased by ∼60% in CLL B cells with low CD20 fluorescence staining. Surprisingly, real-time polymerase chain reaction analysis showed that CD20 mRNA levels were normal or close to normal, depending on the comparative B cell population, and did not correlate well with protein expression. We conclude that CD20 protein is substantially decreased in CLL due to a post-transcriptional defect.

Phylogenetic analysis of the MS4A and TMEM176 gene families.

BACKGROUND: The MS4A gene family in humans includes CD20 (MS4A1), FcRbeta (MS4A2), Htm4 (MS4A3), and at least 13 other syntenic genes encoding membrane proteins, most having characteristic tetraspanning topology. Expression of MS4A genes is variable in tissues throughout the body; however, several are limited to cells in the hematopoietic system where they have known roles in immune cell functions. Genes in the small TMEM176 group share significant sequence similarity with MS4A genes and there is evidence of immune function of at least one of the encoded proteins. In this study, we examined the evolutionary history of the MS4A/TMEM176 families as well as tissue expression of the phylogenetically earliest members, in order to investigate their possible origins in immune cells. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Orthologs of human MS4A genes were found only in mammals; however, MS4A gene homologs were found in most jawed vertebrates. TMEM176 genes were found only in mammals and bony fish. Several unusual MS4A genes having 2 or more tandem MS4A sequences were identified in the chicken (Gallus gallus) and early mammals (opossum, Monodelphis domestica and platypus, Ornithorhyncus anatinus). A large number of highly conserved MS4A and TMEM176 genes was found in zebrafish (Danio rerio). The most primitive organism identified to have MS4A genes was spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthus). Tissue expression of MS4A genes in S. acanthias and D. rerio showed no evidence of expression restricted to the hematopoietic system. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Our findings suggest that MS4A genes first appeared in cartilaginous fish with expression outside of the immune system, and have since diversified in many species into their modern forms with expression and function in both immune and nonimmune cells.

Therapeutic (high) doses of rituximab activate calcium mobilization and inhibit B-cell growth via an unusual mechanism triggered independently of both CD20 and Fcgamma receptors.

Rituximab is a CD20-specific monoclonal antibody that effectively targets and depletes B lymphocytes in vivo, primarily via indirect cytotoxic mechanisms. Direct effects on B cells may also contribute to B-cell depletion but are less clearly defined. In this report, we demonstrate that monomeric rituximab, at the high concentrations found in plasma following infusion of therapeutic doses, induces prolonged low-amplitude release of calcium from thapsigargin-sensitive intracellular stores and reduces the growth of Ramos B cells in culture. Intracellular calcium release was triggered via a signaling pathway distinct from the lipid raft-dependent and src family kinase-dependent pathway that is activated by CD20 hypercrosslinking or B-cell receptor association. The response was independent of both CD20 and Fc receptor binding, and was also triggered by some, but not all, irrelevant monoclonal IgG1 antibodies. The data indicate that unique regions within IgG may contribute to direct effects of therapeutic monoclonal antibodies delivered at suprasaturating concentrations.

Efficient isolation of highly purified tonsil B lymphocytes using RosetteSep with allogeneic human red blood cells.

BACKGROUND: Human tonsils are a rich source of B lymphocytes exhibiting a variety of phenotypes and activation states. Existing methods of purification are time consuming or costly. The aim of the present study was to optimize conditions to isolate large numbers of highly purified primary B lymphocytes from tonsils in a short and cost-effective single step, using a commercially available reagent designed for purifying cells from whole blood (RosetteSep). This technique relies on the presence of the large excess of red blood cells in whole blood for the formation of immunorosettes, whereas single cell suspensions from tonsils contain relatively few red blood cells. RESULTS: B cell enrichment from tonsils was achieved using RosetteSep with no modification to the whole blood procedure; however, the degree of purity depended on the extent of red blood cell contamination of the starting tonsil cell suspension. Addition of a 50-fold excess of allogeneic human red blood cells, but not sheep red blood cells, reproducibly resulted in high levels of purity. Depletion of mononuclear cells from the donor red blood cells eliminated potential contamination with allogeneic B cells. CONCLUSION: RosetteSep reagent can be used in combination with allogeneic human red blood cells to reproducibly isolate tonsil B lymphocytes to high levels of purity with no change in phenotype or loss of cells. This method provides considerable time and cost savings compared to other methods.

Determination of apparent calcium affinity for endogenously expressed human sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum calcium-ATPase isoform SERCA3.

The sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum Ca(2+)-ATPases (SERCAs) play a crucial role in regulating free cytosolic Ca(2+) concentration in diverse cell types. It has been shown that recombinant SERCA3, when measured in heterologous systems, exhibits low apparent affinity for Ca(2+); however, Ca(2+) affinity of native SERCA3 in an endogenous setting has not been examined. Such a measurement is complicated, because SERCA3 is always coexpressed with the housekeeping isoform SERCA2b. We used a fluorescence-based assay for monitoring continuous Ca(2+) uptake into microsomes to examine the properties of endogenous human SERCA3 and SERCA2b. The kinetic parameters were derived using a cooperative two-component uptake model for Ca(2+) activation, and the values assigned to SERCA3 were confirmed using the highly specific human SERCA3 inhibitory antibody PL/IM430. First, using recombinant human SERCA3 and SERCA2b proteins transiently expressed in HEK-293 cells, we confirmed the previously observed low apparent Ca(2+) affinity for SERCA3 compared with SERCA2b (1.10 +/- 0.04 vs. 0.26 +/- 0.01 microM), and using mixtures of recombinant protein isoforms, we validated the two-component uptake model. Then we determined apparent Ca(2+) affinity for SERCA proteins present endogenously in cultured Jurkat T lymphocytes and freshly isolated human tonsil lymphocytes. The apparent Ca(2+) affinity in these two preparations was 1.04 +/- 0.07 and 1.1 +/- 0.2 muM for SERCA3 and 0.27 +/- 0.02 and 0.26 +/- 0.01 microM for SERCA2b, respectively. Our data demonstrate, for the first time, that affinity for Ca(2+) is inherently lower for SERCA3 expressed in situ than for other SERCA isoforms.

CD20 homo-oligomers physically associate with the B cell antigen receptor. Dissociation upon receptor engagement and recruitment of phosphoproteins and calmodulin-binding proteins.

B cell antigen receptor (BCR) signaling initiates sustained cellular calcium influx necessary for the development, differentiation, and activation of B lymphocytes. CD20 is a B cell-restricted tetraspanning protein organized in the plasma membrane as multimeric molecular complexes involved in BCR-activated calcium entry. Using coprecipitation of native CD20 with tagged or truncated forms of the molecule, we provide here direct evidence of CD20 homo-oligomerization into tetramers. Additionally, the function of CD20 was explored by examining its association with surface-labeled and intracellular proteins before and after BCR signaling. Two major surface-labeled proteins that coprecipitated with CD20 were identified as the heavy and light chains of cell surface IgM, the antigen-binding components of the BCR. After activation, BCR-CD20 complexes dissociated, and phosphoproteins and calmodulin-binding proteins were transiently recruited to CD20. These data provide new evidence of the involvement of CD20 in signaling downstream of the BCR and, together with the previously described involvement of CD20 in calcium influx, the first evidence of physical coupling of the BCR to a calcium entry pathway.

Acquirement of rituximab resistance in lymphoma cell lines is associated with both global CD20 gene and protein down-regulation regulated at the pretranscriptional and posttranscriptional levels.

Acquirement of resistance to rituximab has been observed in lymphoma patients. To define mechanisms associated with rituximab resistance, we developed various rituximab-resistant cell lines (RRCL) and studied changes in CD20 expression/structure, lipid raft domain (LRD) reorganization, calcium mobilization, antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity, and complement-mediated cytotoxicity (CMC) between parental and RRCL. Significant changes in surface CD20 antigen expression were shown in RRCL. Decreased calcium mobilization and redistribution of CD20 into LRD were found in RRCL. Western blotting identified a unique 35 kDa protein band in RRCL, which was not seen in parental cells and was secondary to an increase in surface and cytoplasmic expression of IgM light chains. CD20 gene expression was decreased in RRCL. In vitro exposure to PS341 increased CD20 expression in RRCL and minimally improved the sensitivity to rituximab-associated CMC. Our data strongly suggest that the acquisition of rituximab resistance is associated with global gene and protein down-regulation of the CD20 antigen affecting LRD organization and downstream signaling. CD20 expression seems to be regulated at the pretranscriptional and posttranscriptional levels. Proteasome inhibition partially reversed rituximab resistance, suggesting the existence of additional mediators of rituximab resistance. Future research is geared to identify drugs and/or biological agents that are effective against RRCL.

Activation-induced endocytosis of the raft-associated transmembrane adaptor protein LAB/NTAL in B lymphocytes: evidence for a role in internalization of the B cell receptor.

Linker for activation of B cell (LAB)/non-T cell activation linker (NTAL) and phosphoprotein associated with glycophospholipid-enriched membrane microdomain (PAG)/Csk-binding protein (Cbp) are raft-associated transmembrane adaptor proteins with distinct functions in immediate/early phases of receptor signaling pathways. Heterogeneous rafts are thought to compartmentalize membrane-associated signaling events. In order to investigate the subcellular localization of LAB/NTAL and PAG/Cbp, they were expressed as fluorescent chimeric fusion proteins in a human B cell line and their distribution was examined, along with the corresponding endogenous proteins, before and after B cell receptor (BCR) stimulation. Both adaptors were distributed predominantly at the plasma membrane in resting cells and co-clustered with other raft-associated proteins; however, they distributed differently in buoyant membranes isolated by either detergent resistance or non-detergent methods, indicating that they might localize to distinct rafts. After activation, LAB/NTAL was internalized and co-localized with the BCR while PAG/Cbp remained on the cell surface. BCR internalization was reduced in LAB/NTAL-deficient murine B cells, suggesting a regulatory role for LAB/NTAL in activation-induced internalization of the BCR. The cytoplasmic domain of LAB/NTAL, and not the transmembrane/juxtamembrane region, was found to be essential for its internalization.

Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli Tir translocation and pedestal formation requires membrane cholesterol in the absence of bundle-forming pili.

Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) is a significant cause of paediatric diarrhoea worldwide. Virulence requires adherence to intestinal epithelial cells, mediated in part through type IV bundle-forming pili (BFP), and the EPEC protein Tir. Tir is inserted into the enterocyte plasma membrane (PM), resulting in the formation of actin-rich pedestals. Tir is translocated by the type III secretion system (TTSS), through a pore comprised of EPEC proteins inserted into the PM. Here, we demonstrate that in the absence of BFP, EPEC adherence, effector translocation and pedestal formation are dependent on lipid rafts. Lipid raft disruption using methyl-beta-cyclodextrin (MbetaCD) decreased adherence by an EPEC BFP-deficient strain from 85% to 1%. Translocation of the effectors Tir and EspF was blocked by MbetaCD treatment, although the TTSS pore still formed. MbetaCD treatment after Tir delivery decreased pedestal formation by EPEC from 40% to 5%, but not by the related pathogen E. coli O157:H7 which uses a different Tir-based mechanism. In contrast, EPEC expressing the BFP can circumvent the requirement for membrane cholesterol. This suggests that lipid rafts play a role in virulence of this medically important pathogen.

Cholesterol depletion inhibits src family kinase-dependent calcium mobilization and apoptosis induced by rituximab crosslinking.

The monoclonal antibody (mAb) rituximab produces objective clinical responses in patients with B-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and antibody-based autoimmune diseases. Mechanisms mediating B-cell depletion by rituximab are not completely understood and may include direct effects of signalling via the target antigen CD20. Like most but not all CD20 mAbs, rituximab induces a sharp change in the solubility of the CD20 protein in the non-ionic detergent Triton-X-100, reflecting a dramatic increase in the innate affinity of CD20 for membrane raft signalling domains. Apoptosis induced by rituximab hypercrosslinking has been shown to require src family kinases (SFK), which are enriched in rafts. In this report we provide experimental evidence that SFK-dependent apoptotic signals induced by rituximab are raft dependent. Cholesterol depletion prevented the association of hypercrosslinked CD20 with detergent-insoluble rafts, and attenuated both calcium mobilization and apoptosis induced with rituximab. CD20 cocapped with the raft-associated transmembrane adaptor LAB/NTAL after hypercrosslinking with CD20 mAbs, regardless of their ability to induce a change in the affinity of CD20 for rafts. Taken together, the data demonstrate that CD20 hypercrosslinking via rituximab activates SFKs and downstream signalling events by clustering membrane rafts in which antibody-bound CD20 is localized in a high-affinity configuration.

Improved access to CD20 following B cell receptor cross-linking at Burkitt's lymphoma cell surfaces.

Here we report that B cell receptor (BCR) engagement rapidly improves the capacity of CD20 to be accessed by cognate antibody at model Burkitt's lymphoma cell surfaces. None of eight other surface molecules demonstrated such BCR-dependent enhancement of ligand binding while the quantity of accessible CD20 remained unchanged on either CD19 or CD40 engagement. Neither the actin-depolymerizing agent cytochalasin D nor inhibitors targeting signalling pathways associated with the BCR attenuated the CD20 increase that could be uncoupled from BCR endocytosis. Instead, a role for lipid rafts was indicated both from the inhibitory actions of cholesterol-sequestering methyl-beta-cyclodextrin and direct analysis of CD20 redistribution using sucrose density gradients and confocal microscopy. Whether such observations could find application in CD20-directed therapies where success can be compromised by otherwise low-level expression of target antigen is discussed.

The CD20 calcium channel is localized to microvilli and constitutively associated with membrane rafts: antibody binding increases the affinity of the association through an epitope-dependent cross-linking-independent mechanism.

CD20 is a B cell-specific membrane protein that functions in store-operated calcium entry and serves as a useful target for antibody-mediated therapeutic depletion of B cells. Antibody binding to CD20 induces a diversity of biological effects, some of which are dependent on lipid rafts. Rafts are isolated as low density detergent-resistant membranes, initially characterized using Triton X-100. We have previously reported that CD20 is soluble in 1% Triton but that antibodies induce the association of CD20 with Triton-resistant rafts. However, by using several other detergents to isolate rafts and by microscopic co-localization with a glycosylphosphatidylinositol-linked protein, we show in this report that CD20 is constitutively raft-associated. CD20 was distributed in a punctate pattern on the cell surface as visualized by fluorescence imaging and was also localized to microvilli by electron microscopy. The mechanism underlying antibody-induced association of CD20 with Triton-resistant rafts was investigated and found not to require cellular ATP, kinase activity, actin polymerization, or antibody cross-linking but was dependent on the epitope recognized. Thus, antibody-induced insolubility in 1% Triton most likely reflects a transition from relatively weak to strong raft association that occurs as a result of a conformational change in the CD20 protein.

Store-operated cation entry mediated by CD20 in membrane rafts.

B cell activation requires sustained elevation of cytoplasmic free calcium, achieved by influx through store-operated calcium (SOC) channels. The molecular identity of these channels is not known. Ectopic expression of the raft-associated tetraspan protein CD20 in Chinese hamster ovary cells introduced a novel SOC entry pathway that was permeable to strontium as well as to calcium. The activity of this SOC pathway was abolished by deletion of a cytoplasmic sequence in CD20 essential for its efficient raft localization. Strontium-permeable SOC channels were detected in B cells, and B cell receptor-stimulated influx was significantly reduced by downregulation of CD20 expression using short interfering RNA and also by cholesterol depletion. This is the first evidence that raft-associated CD20 constitutes a component of a SOC entry pathway activated by the B cell receptor.

CD20-mediated apoptosis: signalling through lipid rafts.

CD20 is an effective target for therapeutic B-cell depletion with monoclonal antibodies. One proposed mechanism of action is direct cytotoxicity mediated via tyrosine kinase-dependent signalling pathways activated upon CD20 cross-linking. The association of CD20 with membrane microdomains known as lipid rafts, enriched in src-family tyrosine kinases and other signalling effectors, suggests an indirect mechanism of anti-CD20-induced apoptosis in which activation of src-family kinases occurs as a consequence of lipid raft clustering.

Colocalization of the B cell receptor and CD20 followed by activation-dependent dissociation in distinct lipid rafts.

The B cell Ag receptor (BCR) and CD20, a putative calcium channel, inducibly associate with cholesterol-dependent membrane microdomains known as lipid rafts. A functional association between the BCR and CD20 is suggested by the effects of CD20-specific mAbs, which can modulate cell cycle transitions elicited by BCR signaling. Using immunofluorescence microscopy we show here that the BCR and CD20 colocalize after receptor ligation and then rapidly dissociate at the cell surface before endocytosis of the BCR. After separation, surface BCR and CD20 were detected in distinct lipid rafts isolated as low density, detergent-resistant membrane fragments. Pretreatment with methyl-beta-cyclodextrin, which we have previously shown to enhance receptor-mediated calcium mobilization, did not prevent colocalization of the BCR and CD20, but slowed their dissociation. The data demonstrate rapid dynamics of the BCR in relation to CD20 at the cell surface. Activation-dependent dissociation of the BCR from CD20 occurs before receptor endocytosis and appears to require in part the integrity of lipid rafts.