Meta-analysis in Plant Pathology: Publication Patterns, Methodological Trends and Potential Future Directions.

Meta-analysis (MA) is increasingly adopted in agricultural and ecological sciences, fields at the interface with plant pathology. Our review on the use of MA in the field, since 1999, identified 79 original research papers. Fifty percent of these works were published in two APS journals, emphasizing their central role in disseminating MA research. Analysis of the number of authors per study and the authorship network revealed a tightly knit field. The network shows a few "hub" authors or groups that significantly influence research directions, with a clear geographical clustering in North and South America. Most of the MA papers focused on the effects of disease control, where fungicide was the main product. The MA investigations often focus on response variables like yield and disease severity for which the analyzed effect sizes differ, but the log of the ratio of means and untransformed means are predominant. The study selection to be included in the MA often follows systematic review standards or when clear quantitative criteria are used for study inclusion. Yet, the inclusion of data from reports, newsletters, and research trial data adds breadth. Frequentist rather than Bayesian inference is most common and SAS and R are the preferred software. Our review underscores the escalating importance of MA in plant pathology, especially for determining the mean and variability of the effects of different control methods on disease and yield. Efforts should continue to improve the detailed reporting of MA methods used, data sharing and reporting of measures of heterogeneity among studies.

EphemBrazil: a curated online database and dashboard to explore the distribution of mayflies (Insecta: Ephemeroptera) from Brazil

ABSTRACT Despite the growing number of studies on mayflies (Ephemeroptera), especially in terms of description of new species and distributional records, the knowledge generated remains scattered across specialized literature. This dispersion poses a challenge for non-specialists, such as ecologists, hindering their ability to promote studies and conservation actions. In order to fill this gap, we are launching EphemBrazil: an online database focusing on the distribution of mayflies in Brazil. The main objectives of this platform are to compile a dataset of distributional information for the valid species of Ephemeroptera in Brazil, provide open access to this dataset through an interactive and easily updated website, and offer dynamic distributional maps for species, genera, and families of Brazilian mayflies. EphemBrazil aims to facilitate the retrieval and access of distributional and basic taxonomic information for the order.

Timing of Triazole-Based Spray Schedules for Managing Mungbean Powdery Mildew in Australia: A Meta-Analysis.

Powdery mildew (PM), caused by two fungal species, Podosphaera xanthii and Erysiphe vignae, is a yield-limiting foliar disease commonly found in mungbean (Vigna radiata) cropping areas of the eastern region of Australia. Effective control of the disease relies largely on fungicide applications, mainly of the triazole group. Uncertainty in the current fungicide spray schedule recommendations, which advise commencing with a spray at the first signs of PM, prompted this study to evaluate PM severity and crop yield data obtained from fungicide trials, which also tested spray schedules starting before (early) or after (late) first signs, applied singly or combined with a follow-up spray. A meta-analytic approach was used to obtain mean differences of the PM severity and crop yield between plots sprayed with specific triazole-based spray schedules and nontreated plots. From 26 trials, 14 trials and 15 trials met the criteria for inclusion in PM severity and yield analyses, respectively. The schedule with the first spray starting at first sign, with a follow-up spray 14 days later, resulted in significantly lower disease severity compared with all other schedules. However, the yield protected was only numerically higher and not statistically different compared with single-spray at first sign, single-spray late, or two-spray starting late. PM severity and yield in the early sprayed plots did not differ from the nontreated plots. These findings support the current recommendations and provide additional evidence that yields are still protected when delaying the first spray up to a week after disease onset. They also suggest that additional sprays may not always be necessary, thus reducing direct fungicide costs, indirect costs related to fungicide insensitivity, and potential adverse effects to the environment.

Are Demethylation Inhibitor Plus Quinone Outside Inhibitor Fungicide Premixes During Flowering Worthwhile for Fusarium Head Blight Control in Wheat? A Meta-Analysis.

Fusarium head blight (FHB), caused mainly by Fusarium graminearum, is best controlled with demethylation inhibitor (DMI) fungicides during flowering. However, the use of premixes of DMI and quinone outside inhibitor (QoI) fungicides to control FHB has increased in Brazil. Data on FHB severity and wheat yields measured in field experiments conducted in Brazil were gathered from both peer- and nonpeer-reviewed sources published from 2000 to 2018. After selection criteria were applied, 73 field trials from 35 bibliographic sources were identified, among which 50% of the data were obtained from cooperative network trials conducted after 2011. To be included in the analysis, DMI plus QoI premixes or tebuconazole were tested in at least 14 trials and 3 years. Four premixes met the criteria. Estimates of percent control (and respective 95% confidence intervals) by a network model fitted to the log of the treatment means ranged from 44.1% (pyraclostrobin plus metconazole applied once; 32.4 to 53.7) to 64.3% (pyraclostrobin plus metconazole; 58.4 to 69.3); the latter did not differ from tebuconazole (59.9%; 53.6 to 65.3). Yield response was statistically similar for pyraclostrobin plus metconazole (532.1 kg/ha; 441 to 623) and trifloxystrobin plus prothioconazole (494.9 kg/ha; 385 to 551), and both differed statistically from a group composed of tebuconazole (448.2 kg/ha; 342 to 554), trifloxystrobin plus tebuconazole (468.2 kg/ha; 385 to 551), azoxystrobin plus tebuconazole (462.4 kg/ha; 366 to 558), and pyraclostrobin plus metconazole applied once (413.7 kg/ha; 308 to 518). The two categories of FHB index (7% cutoff) and yield (3,000 kg/ha cutoff), both in the nontreated check, did not explain the heterogeneity in the estimates. Considering only the fungicide effects on yield, two sequential sprays of tebuconazole or one spray of pyraclostrobin plus metconazole as management choices are likely more profitable than DMI plus QoI premixes sprayed twice during flowering.

Modeling Yield Losses and Fungicide Profitability for Managing Fusarium Head Blight in Brazilian Spring Wheat.

Fusarium head blight (FHB) and wheat yield data were gathered from fungicide trials to explore their relationship. Thirty-seven studies over 9 years and 11 locations met the criteria for inclusion in the analysis: FHB index in the untreated check ≥ 5% and the range of index in a trial ≥ 4 percentage points. These studies were grouped into two baseline yields, low (Yl ≤ 3,631 kg ha-1) or high (Yh > 3,631 kg ha-1), defined based on the median of maximum yields across trials. Attainable (disease-free) yields and FHB index were predicted using a wheat crop and a disease model, respectively, in 280 simulated trials (10 planting dates in a 28-year period, 1980 to 2007) for the Passo Fundo location. The damage coefficient was then used to calculate FHB-induced yield loss (penalizing attainable yield) for each experiment. Losses were compared between periods defined as before and after FHB resurge during the early 1990s. Disease reduction from the use of one or two sprays of a triazole fungicide (tebuconazole) was also simulated, based on previous meta-analytic estimates, and the response in yield was used in a profitability analysis. Population-average intercepts but not the slopes differed significantly between Yl (2,883.6 kg ha-1) and Yh (4,419.5 kg ha-1) baseline yields and the damage coefficients were 1.60%-1 and 1.05%-1, respectively. The magnitudes and trends of simulated yield losses were in general agreement with literature reports. The risk of not offsetting the costs of one or two fungicide sprays was generally higher (>0.75) prior to FHB resurgence but fungicide profitability tended to increase in recent years, depending on the year. Our simulations allowed us to reproduce trends in historical losses, and may be further adjusted to test the effect and profitability of different control measures (host resistance, other fungicides, etc.) on quality parameters such as test weight and mycotoxin contamination, should the information become available.

Quantitative Review of the Effects of Triazole and Benzimidazole Fungicides on Fusarium Head Blight and Wheat Yield in Brazil.

Triazole and benzimidazole fungicides have been used for controlling Fusarium head blight (FHB) in wheat for over two decades. In Brazil, it was only during the last five years that uniform fungicide trials for FHB control have been established yearly, thus contributing to a new large body of fungicide efficacy data for this country. A systematic review of both peer- and non-peer-reviewed studies on chemical control conducted since 2000 in Brazil was performed. Fungicides of interest were the triazoles tebuconazole (TEBU1x and TEBU2x) and propiconazole (PROP2x), and the benzimidazole carbendazim (CARB2x). Most fungicides were applied twice, the first at early to mid-flowering and the second 7 to 10 days later. Only TEBU was tested as one or two applications, and thus four treatments were evaluated. For these fungicides, there were 35 trials reporting FHB index and 48 reporting mean yield. Network meta-analytic models were fitted to the data of the log of the means of FHB index for each fungicide and for the nontreated check. The meta-analytic estimates were used to obtain control efficacy ( C¯ ), or percent disease reduction relative to the nontreated check. The absolute mean difference ( D¯ ) in yield (kg/ha) between the fungicide-treated and the nontreated check plots was also estimated. Yield response relative to the nontreated check ( Y¯ ) was also calculated based on the difference in the logs of the means of yield between fungicide-treated and nontreated check. The TEBU1x, TEBU2x, and CARB2x treatments performed similarly with regards to control efficacy (= 59%, 53% and 55%, respectively), and although better than PROP2x (47%), the difference was marginally significant. Yield response ( D¯ ) was highest for TEBU2x, ( D¯ = 558 kg/ha, Y¯ = 19.2%) followed by PROP2x (497 kg/ha, 16.0%), TEBU1x (457 kg/ha, 17.3%), and CARB2x (456 kg/ha, 12.8%). For an average 2016 scenario of fungicide plus application costs (FC = $18 U.S./ha) and average wheat price (WP = $215 U.S./MT), the probability of breaking even on the financial investment in the four treatments ranged from 59 to 63%. For 140 scenarios (four fungicides) created based on the combination of five WP ($133 to 266 U.S./MT) and seven FC ($5 to 35 U.S./ha), the probability of breaking even was >50% for all but two scenarios. The information may serve as a guide for planning future trials and provides a baseline and first step toward optimizing FHB management in Brazil.

Is the emergence of fungal resistance to medical triazoles related to their use in the agroecosystems? A mini review

Abstract Triazole fungicides are used broadly for the control of infectious diseases of both humans and plants. The surge in resistance to triazoles among pathogenic populations is an emergent issue both in agriculture and medicine. The non-rational use of fungicides with site-specific modes of action, such as the triazoles, may increase the risk of antifungal resistance development. In the medical field, the surge of resistant fungal isolates has been related to the intensive and recurrent therapeutic use of a limited number of triazoles for the treatment and prophylaxis of many mycoses. Similarities in the mode of action of triazole fungicides used in these two fields may lead to cross-resistance, thus expanding the spectrum of resistance to multiple fungicides and contributing to the perpetuation of resistant strains in the environment. The emergence of fungicide-resistant isolates of human pathogens has been related to the exposure to fungicides used in agroecosystems. Examples include species of cosmopolitan occurrence, such as Fusarium and Aspergillus, which cause diseases in both plants and humans. This review summarizes the information about the most important triazole fungicides that are largely used in human clinical therapy and agriculture. We aim to discuss the issues related to fungicide resistance and the recommended strategies for preventing the emergence of triazole-resistant fungal populations capable of spreading across environments.

Is the emergence of fungal resistance to medical triazoles related to their use in the agroecosystems? A mini review.

Triazole fungicides are used broadly for the control of infectious diseases of both humans and plants. The surge in resistance to triazoles among pathogenic populations is an emergent issue both in agriculture and medicine. The non-rational use of fungicides with site-specific modes of action, such as the triazoles, may increase the risk of antifungal resistance development. In the medical field, the surge of resistant fungal isolates has been related to the intensive and recurrent therapeutic use of a limited number of triazoles for the treatment and prophylaxis of many mycoses. Similarities in the mode of action of triazole fungicides used in these two fields may lead to cross-resistance, thus expanding the spectrum of resistance to multiple fungicides and contributing to the perpetuation of resistant strains in the environment. The emergence of fungicide-resistant isolates of human pathogens has been related to the exposure to fungicides used in agroecosystems. Examples include species of cosmopolitan occurrence, such as Fusarium and Aspergillus, which cause diseases in both plants and humans. This review summarizes the information about the most important triazole fungicides that are largely used in human clinical therapy and agriculture. We aim to discuss the issues related to fungicide resistance and the recommended strategies for preventing the emergence of triazole-resistant fungal populations capable of spreading across environments.

Inhibition of Fusarium graminearum growth and mycotoxin production by phenolic extract from Spirulina sp.

Fusarium graminearum is a fungal species complex pathogenic occurring worldwide, mainly associated with cereal crops. The most important Fusarium mycotoxins are fumonisins, zearalenone and trichothecenes. The availability of efficient control measures that are less harmful to both the environment and the consumers is urgent. For such, phenolic acids (PAs) from natural sources are known to reduce fungal contaminations. This work aimed to identify the PAs present in a culture extract of Spirulina algae (strain LEB-18) and evaluate its effect on mycelial growth rate, glucosamine level, amylase activity and mycotoxin production by four strains of two lineages of F. graminearum. Results showed that amendment of potato dextrose media with LEB-18 extract (3% w/v), which was mainly composed by gallic acid, greatly reduced radial growth of fungal colonies compared to media containing a single PA and the control. Also, average reductions of 40% and 62% in the glucosamine levels and the amylase activity were observed. In general, the LEB-18 extract and the PAs reduced mycotoxin concentration, with an average reduction of 68% for the trichothecene mycotoxins deoxynivalenol and nivalenol.

Regional survey and identification of Bipolaris spp. associated with rice seeds in Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil / Levantamento regional e identificação de Bipolaris spp. associadas às sementes de arroz no Estado do Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil

In the harvest year of 2004, a random sample of seed lots (n=165) from six rice-growing regions of Rio Grande do Sul (RS) State, Brazil, were examined under seed health blotter test. Fungi growth resembling Bipolaris or Drechslera spp. was isolated and identified at the species level. Observations on the anamorphic structures (conidiophores and conidia) allowed separation of isolates into three groups. Pseudothecia, asci and ascospores from sexual crosses between isolates from a same anamorphic group but originated from different regions showed the typical characteristics of three recognized species (anamorph/teleomorph): Bipolaris cynodontis (Cochliobolus cynodontis); B. curvispora (C. melinidis) and B. oryzae (C. miyabeanus). All species were widely distributed across the rice-growing regions. Overall, the most prevalent species were B. oryzae (44.6 percent) and B. curvispora (42,9 percent) followed by B. cynodontis (24,1 percent). This is the first report of B. cynodontis associated with rice seeds in Brazil and the preliminary identification of B. curvispora in rice by the observation of the teleomorph phase was confirmed. The regional occurrence of a complex of pathogenic Bipolaris species related to brown spot epidemics in other countries, may have epidemiological consequences in the region which deserve further investigation.

Uma amostra aleatória (n=165) de lotes de sementes de seis regiões produtoras de arroz no Estado do Rio Grande do Sul (RS), Brasil, ano de colheita 2004, foi examinada em teste blotter de sanidade de sementes. Fungos semelhantes a espécies de Bipolaris e Drechslera foram isolados para identificação das espécies. A observação de estruturas da fase anamórfica (conidióforos e conídios) permitiu separar os isolados em três grupos. Cruzamentos sexuais induzidos em isolados do mesmo grupo, mas originados de diferentes regiões, resultaram em pseudotécio, ascos e ascósporos, permitindo a identificação de três espécies (anamorfo/teleomorfo): Bipolaris cynodontis (Cochliobolus cynodontis); B. curvispora (C. melinidis) e B. oryzae (C. miyabeanus). Todas as espécies estavam distribuídas nas seis regiões produtoras no Rio Grande do Sul. Em geral, a espécie mais prevalente nas amostras foi B. oryzae (44,6 por cento) e B. curvispora (42,9 por cento) seguido de B. cynodontis (24,1 por cento). Este é o primeiro relato de B. cynodontis associada a sementes de arroz no Brasil, e confirma-se a ocorrência de B. curvispora pela observação da fase teleomórfica. A ocorrência de um complexo de espécies patogênicas de Bipolaris, relacionadas com a mancha parda em outros países, pode ter consequências epidemiológicas na região, o que merece futura atenção.

Meio semiseletivo para recuperação e quantificação de Cryptosporiopsis perennans em maçãs / Semi-selective medium for recovery and quantification of Cryptosporiopsis perennans from apple fruits

A podridão "olho de boi", causada pelo fungo Cryptosporiopsis perennans, é uma das doenças de pós-colheita da macieira mais importantes no Brasil. Os objetivos deste trabalho foram desenvolver e avaliar um meio semiseletivo para a recuperação e mensuração da população epífita de C. perennans em maçãs "Fuji". A suplementação de BDA com tetraciclina, nistatina e iprodiona, nas respectivas concentrações de 12,5; 1 e 1µg p.a mL-1, proporcionou o desenvolvimento de colônias de C. perennans estatisticamente igual (P>0,05) ao observado no meio BDA. Em condições de infecção natural e em amostras pré-inoculadas com C. perennans, o meio semiseletivo permitiu detectar e quantificar a população do fungo na superfície dos frutos, além de ter inibido o crescimento de fungos leveduriformes, dematiáceos e leveduras. Em lavagens de frutos previamente inoculados, o número de conídios recuperados com o meio semiseletivo apresentou correlação (r=0,88; P<0,05) com a concentração do inóculo aspergido sobre os frutos.

Bull's eye rot, caused by Cryptosporiopsis perennans, is one of the most important apple's posharvest diseases in Brazil. The aim of this research was to develop and evaluate a semi-selective media to recovery and quantification of the epiphytic population of C. perennans on the apple fruit surface. A PDA medium amended with tetracycline, nistatine and iprodione in concentrations of 12.5; 1 and 1µg i.a.mL-1, respectively, allowed the development of C. perennans colonies statistically similar (P>0.05) to those in PDA media. Nistatine concentrations higher than 1µg.mL-1 inhibited the growth of the pathogen. Under natural infection conditions and pre-inoculation with C. perennans, the media allowed the detection and quantification of the fungal population on the fruit surface without affecting C. perennans development. Number of conidia observed in pre-inoculated fruits was correlated (r=0.88; P<0.05) to inoculum concentration sprayed on the fruit surface.