Underlying cognitions in the selection of lottery tickets.

There is evidence that the faulty cognitions underlying an individual's playing behavior maintains and supports their gambling behavior. Sixty undergraduate students completed the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS), a measure to assess pathological gambling, and a questionnaire ascertaining the type and frequency of their gambling activities. Sixteen Loto 6/49 tickets were presented to participants and ranked according to their perceived likelihood of being the winning ticket. The numbers on the tickets were categorized as: long sequences (e.g., 1-2-3-4-5-6), patterns and series in a pseudo-psychological order (e.g., 16-21-26-31-36-41), unbalanced (e.g., six numbers from 1-24 or 25-49), and those appearing to be random (e.g., 11-14-20-29-37-43). Verbal protocols of ticket selections were ranked into eight heuristics. Results revealed that for the entire sample the greatest percentage of tickets chosen for the first four selections were "random" tickets. Further, the most commonly cited reason for selecting and changing a lottery ticket was perceived randomness. The results are discussed with reference to the cognitions used when purchasing lottery tickets.

Social influences involved in children's gambling behavior.

Children (N = 130) in grades 4 and 6 from various schools in the Greater Montreal Region completed a questionnaire concerning their gambling behavior and played a computer-simulated roulette game individually (baseline trial & post-test trial) and in groups (same and mixed gender dyads or triads: group trial). The purpose of this design was to measure children's betting behavior (via average wagers) and to determine if any changes in betting occur as a result of playing in groups of two, three, same and/or different gender peers. Results of repeated measures analyses reveal that during individual and group play, males consistently exhibit higher average wagers than females. Average wagers of females and mixed gender groupings appear to be most affected by the group condition. Females were found to increase their average wagers when playing with females and males. Female dyads' wagers increase significantly during group play, indicating they are dramatically affected by the group game. Most changes resulting from group play were generally maintained over a relatively short period of time in the post-test condition. Results are interpreted with respect to the importance of the influence of the peer group on children's gambling behavior. Future directions for research are suggested.

Prevalence estimates of adolescent gambling: a comparison of the SOGS-RA, DSM-IV-J, and the GA 20 questions.

Concerns over the rising prevalence of adolescent gambling problems have become more commonplace. A recent meta analysis of studies examining adolescent prevalence rates by Shaffer and Hall (1996) has suggested that between 77-83% of adolescents are engaging in some form of gambling behavior with between 9.9% and 14.2% of youth remaining at risk for a serious gambling problem. Their results further suggest that between 4.4% and 7.4% of adolescents exhibit serious adverse gambling related problems and/or pathological gambling behavior. Comparisons of studies are often difficult due to the use of alternative measures, differing classification schemes, and nomenclature. The present study examined the gambling behaviors of 980 adolescents who were administered three screening measures used with adolescents; the SOGS-RA, DSM-IV-J, and the GA 20 Questions. The DSM-IV-J was found to be the most conservative measure identifying 3.4% of the population as problem/pathological gamblers while the SOGS-GA identified 5.3% and the GA 20 Questions identified 6% of youth as experiencing serious gambling problems. The degree of concordance amongst the measures, gender differences, and classification systems are discussed.

Adolescents with gambling problems: from research to treatment.

Considerable interest in the area of youth gambling has prompted an increase in empirical investigations examining the correlates associated with youth experiencing severe gambling problems. Based upon the current state of knowledge and our clinical experience, the development of the treatment program for youth with serious gambling problems employed at the McGill University Youth Gambling Research and Treatment Clinic is described. The major tenets, underlying philosophy, and therapeutic processes are presented. A case study is included to illustrate the therapeutic approach. The authors present the need for greater funding for more basic and applied research and the necessity for further scientifically validated treatment and prevention programs.

Gambling and risk-taking behavior among university students.

The present study examines the relationships between risk taking, sensation seeking, and level of gambling involvement. The intent of this research was to investigate whether risk taking and/or sensation seeking are determinants in distinguishing pathological gamblers from problem gamblers and whether risk taking and gambling behavior for a university population are positively correlated for both males and females. Results indicated that the Risk-Taking Questionnaire (RTQ), the Arnett Inventory of Sensation Seeking (AISS), and the Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS) distinguished between probable/pathological gamblers and nonproblem gamblers with probable/pathological gamblers scoring the highest on each measure. However, the RTQ was the only measure able to distinguish probable/pathological gamblers from gamblers experiencing some problems relating to their gambling behavior. Females encountering some problems resulting from their gambling behavior consistently reported higher risk-taking and sensation seeking scores than males with no gambling problems. Results indicate that excessive gamblers are significantly greater risk takers than social gamblers, a finding which could prove useful in advising treatment regimens.

Familial and social influences on juvenile gambling behavior.

Social learning theory maintains that individuals model, learn and maintain behaviors that are observed, appealing and reinforcing. As such, parents and family members can often serve as significant models for gambling. Four hundred and seventy seven children between the ages of 9 and 14 completed a questionnaire inquiring about their gambling activities, including where and with whom gambling occurs, as well as information concerning their perceptions of their own gambling behavior. Results indicate that 86% of children who gamble regularly reported gambling with family members. Fifty-three percent of students who gambled within the previous 12 months reported gambling with their siblings, 40% gambled with their parents, 46% gambled with other relatives, and 75% gambled in their own homes. Students' responses also indicated gambling with their friends (75%), gambling alone (18%), and with strangers (8%). As children's age increases they tend to gamble more at friend's homes and at school. Prevalence rates indicated that 81% of the total sample had gambled at one point in their lives and 52% of those children reported gambling once a week or more. Eleven percent reported that gambling makes them feel important, 27% feel they gamble more than they desire to do so, and only 10% of the grade 8 students fear being caught gambling, suggesting gambling activities to be a socially acceptable behavior. Several clinical and research questions are addressed.

A developmental perspective of gambling behavior in children and adolescents.

Although it has been determined that gambling is a popular activity amongst the young, there seems to be a lack of studies examining developmental differences in children's gambling behavior. This study examines developmental differences in children's blackjack gambling behavior. One hundred and four students (51 males; 53 females) from grades 4, 6, and 8 completed a questionnaire examining their gambling behavior in general and individually played a computerized blackjack game with the following data being recorded: percentage of accuracy, amounts of money bet, gross winnings, percentage of wins, number of hands played, and end balance. Findings revealed few developmental differences in prevalence and frequency of gambling behavior and performance on a blackjack task. Males were found to wager greater amounts of money and have larger gross winnings than females on the blackjack task. Furthermore, males were more likely to view gambling as involving both large amounts of skill and luck, thus suggesting an illusion of control for gambling activities. The results are discussed from a cognitive developmental perspective.

The relationship between gambling and video-game playing behavior in children and adolescents.

It is suggested that commercial video-games (e.g.Nintendo &Sega) and gambling activities have similar attractive features and intermittent reinforcement schedules. This research seeks to examine the nature of this relationship amongst children. One hundred and four children aged 9 to 14, from grades 4, 6, and 8, participated. A questionnaire exploring issues related to video-game playing and gambling behavior in children and adolescents was completed and a computerized blackjack game was individually administered. High frequency video-game players were compared to low frequency video-game players with respect to their gambling performance on the blackjack gambling task as well as on information gathered from the questionnaire. Of particular concern is the risk-taking strategies used by avid video-game players, whether or not children perceive gambling and video-games as involving similar amounts of skill or whether they realize that gambling is primarily a game of chance. The findings, in general, suggest that high frequency video-game players gamble more than low frequency video-game players, report that gambling makes them feel more important, and take greater risks on the blackjack gambling task although no overall differences in success were found. Males exhibited greater risk-taking tendencies on the blackjack task than females. The clinical implications of the findings are addressed.

Adolescent motherhood: an application of the stress and coping model to child-rearing attitudes and practices.

In the past two decades there has been a significant increase in adolescent pregnancy and childbearing across North America. Research has shown that both mother and child remain at high risk for physical, psychological, social, and economic consequences of premature parenthood and its accelerated role transition. Although considerable research has examined adolescent parenthood, the literature lacks theoretical integration. The stress and coping model is proposed as a theoretical context to explain developmental outcomes of adolescent motherhood. This model suggests that diminished psychological and social coping resources of adolescent mothers influence negative parent-child interactions and result in ineffective parenting behaviours concomitant with parenting stress, thus increasing the likelihood of high risk outcomes for both parents and children.

Children's fears: a developmental comparison of normal and exceptional children.

The fears of 133 boys and girls aged 7 to 19, classified as educable mentally retarded (EMR), trainable mentally retarded (TMR), and specific learning disabled (SLD), were ascertained through self-report data and compared with those of 106 normal children aged 6 to 12. Similar developmental trends were found in all groups, with younger children reporting more unrealistic fears than older children. When mental age was calculated for the EMR and TMR children, their developmental trends closely approximated those of the normal children. In general, exceptional children were found to have a much wider range and a greater number of fears than normal children. Most fears were found to be realistic, learned, and dependent upon the child's intellectural and maturational level.

Relative contributions of active and passive touch to a child's knowledge of physical objects.

Literature was examined for contributions of both active and passive touch to a child's knowledge of shape perception. While research suggests that passive touch provides a useful function, haptic exploration or active touch is more effective for information processing. Various models and their educational implications for sensory training are discussed.