The Efficacy and Safety of Ketogenic Diets in Drug-Resistant Epilepsy in Children and Adolescents: a Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Drug-resistant epilepsy represents around one-quarter of epilepsies worldwide. Although ketogenic diets (KD) have been used for refractory epilepsy since 1921, the past 15 years have witnessed an explosion of KD use in the management of epilepsy. We aimed to review evidence from randomized controlled trials (RCTs) regarding the efficacy and safety of KD in drug-resistant epilepsy in children and adolescents. RECENT FINDINGS: A literature search was performed in the Pubmed, Cohrane, Scopus, ClinicalTrials.gov, and Google Scholar databases. Predefined criteria were implemented regarding data extraction and study quality. Data were extracted from 14 RCTs in 1114 children and adolescents aged from 6 months to 18 years. Primary outcome was seizure reduction after the intervention. In 6 out of the 14 studies, there was a statistical significant seizure reduction by > 50% in the KD-treated group compared with the control group over a follow-up of 3-4 months. Secondary outcomes were adverse events, seizure severity, quality of life, and behavior. Gastrointestinal symptoms were the most frequent adverse events. Serious adverse events were rare. We conclude that the KD is an effective treatment for drug-resistant epilepsy in children and adolescents. Accordingly, RCTs investigating long-term impact, cognitive and behavioral effects, and cost-effectiveness are much anticipated.

Measurement and pricing of risk in insurance markets.

The theory and practice of risk measurement provides a point of intersection between risk management, economic theories of choice under risk, financial economics, and actuarial pricing theory. This article provides a review of these interrelationships, from the perspective of an insurance company seeking to price the risks that it underwrites. We examine three distinct approaches to insurance risk pricing, all being contingent on the concept of risk measures. Risk measures can be interpreted as representations of risk orderings, as well as absolute (monetary) quantifiers of risk. The first approach can be called an "axiomatic" one, whereby the price for risks is calculated according to a functional determined by a set of desirable properties. The price of a risk is directly interpreted as a risk measure and may be induced by an economic theory of price under risk. The second approach consists in contextualizing the considerations of the risk bearer by embedding them in the market where risks are traded. Prices are calculated by equilibrium arguments, where each economic agent's optimization problem follows from the minimization of a risk measure. Finally, in the third approach, weaknesses of the equilibrium approach are addressed by invoking alternative valuation techniques, the leading paradigm among which is arbitrage pricing. Such models move the focus from individual decision takers to abstract market price systems and are thus more parsimonious in the amount of information that they require. In this context, risk measures, instead of characterizing individual agents, are used for determining the set of price systems that would be viable in a market.