Inequalities reinforced through online and distance education in the age of COVID-19: The case of higher education in Nepal.

Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has triggered serious disruption in economic, social and cultural dynamics around the globe. Higher education has also suffered undeniable challenges as a result of the pandemic, with thousands of university students all over the world experiencing displacement, disconnect and disengagement from formal learning. In the Global South, online and distance education programmes tend to be concentrated in urban centres. In Nepal, students from rural areas, low socio-economic and gendered spaces, and those with low proficiencies in English and technological skills are experiencing inequalities in access to and participation in online and distance education. This article outlines how universities' shift to online teaching and learning modes due to the COVID-19 pandemic has reinforced social inequalities in Nepal. For the study presented here, the author collected data through netnographic research methods. These included online interviews with university executives, online focus group discussions (FGDs) with university teachers and students, observation of and participation in online classes and policy conferences and reviews of online documents. The article analyses three overriding mechanisms which are reinforcing social inequalities in higher education: (1) universities' policy trajectories in shifting teaching/learning from face-to-face to online mode; (2) infrastructural limitations challenging effective implementation of online teaching/learning; and (3) a lack of strong pedagogic support for students from disadvantaged and marginalised spaces, including those with low proficiencies in English and technological skills. The author presents a number of tangible strategies for universities to implement in order to mitigate social inequalities. He recommends the adoption of policies and practices that optimise the inclusive use of online and distance education programmes for best effect, both now and in the post-pandemic era.

L'aggravation des inégalités en raison de l'éducation en ligne et à distance à l'ère de la COVID-19: le cas de l'enseignement supérieur au Népal ­ La COVID-19, maladie due au coronavirus, perturbe gravement la dynamique économique, sociale et culturelle aux quatre coins du globe. Avec des milliers d'étudiants universitaires du monde entier déplacés, déconnectés et désengagés de l'apprentissage formel, l'enseignement supérieur s'est vu confronté à d'indéniables difficultés provoquées par la pandémie. Dans les pays du Sud, les programmes d'éducation en ligne et à distance tendent à se concentrer dans des centres urbains. Au Népal, les étudiants des zones rurales, de communautés socio-économiques défavorisées et genrées, et qui maîtrisent mal l'anglais et l'informatique se trouvent confrontés à des inégalités quant à l'accès et la participation à l'éducation en ligne et à distance. Cet article expose brièvement comment le passage des universités à des modes d'enseignement et d'apprentissage en ligne, dû à la pandémie de COVID-19, a creusé les inégalités au Népal. Pour l'étude présentée ici, l'auteur a collecté des données selon des méthodes de recherche netnographiques, en s'appuyant, notamment, sur des interviews en ligne avec des dirigeants d'universités, sur des discussions de groupe en ligne avec des enseignants et étudiants universitaires, sur l'observation de cours et de conférences politiques en ligne ­ et la participation à ces cours et conférences ­ et sur l'analyse de documents en ligne. L'article analyse trois mécanismes prépondérants qui creusent les inégalités sociales dans le domaine de l'enseignement supérieur : (1) la démarche politique des universités concernant la transition de l'enseignement/de l'apprentissage en face-à-face au mode en ligne ; (2) les limites infrastructurelles qui compliquent la mise en œuvre efficace de l'enseignement/de l'apprentissage en ligne ; (3) enfin, l'absence de soutien pédagogique puissant pour les étudiants de communautés défavorisées et marginalisées, y compris ceux qui maîtrisent mal l'anglais et l'informatique. L'auteur présente tout un ensemble de stratégies concrètes que les universités pourraient mettre en œuvre pour réduire les inégalités sociales. Il recommande l'adoption de politiques et de pratiques optimisant l'utilisation inclusive de programmes d'enseignement en ligne et à distance pour garantir des résultats optimaux, tant maintenant que quand la pandémie appartiendra au passé.

Dark and bright spots in the shadow of the pandemic: Rural livelihoods, social vulnerability, and local governance in India and Nepal.

The global COVID-19 pandemic has brought unprecedented disruption to lives and livelihoods around the world. These disruptions have brought into sharp focus experiences of vulnerability but also, at times, evidence of resilience as people and institutions gear up to respond to the crisis. Drawing on intensive qualitative enquiry in 16 villages of Himalayan India and Nepal, this paper documents both dark and bright spots from the early days of the pandemic. We find intense experiences of fear and uncertainty, heightened food insecurity, and drastic reductions in livelihood opportunities. However, we also find a wide range of individual and collective responses as well as a patchwork of policy support mechanisms that have provided at least some measure of basic security. Local elected governments have played a critical role in coordinating responses and delivering social support, however the nature of their actions varies as a result of different institutional arrangements and state support systems in the two countries. Our findings highlight the changing nature of vulnerability in the present era, as demographic shifts, growing off-farm employment and dependence on remittances, and increasing market integration have all brought about new kinds of exposure to risk for rural populations in the context of the present disruption and beyond. Most importantly, our research shows the critical importance of strong systems of state support for protecting basic well-being in times of crises. Based on these findings, we argue that there is a need for greater knowledge of how local institutions work in tandem with a broader set of state support mechanisms to generate responses for urgent challenges; such knowledge holds the potential to develop governance systems that are better able to confront diverse shocks that households face, both now and in the future.

Economics of climate adaptive water management practices in Nepal.

This study analyses costs and benefits of the selected climate adaptive and equitable water management practices and strategies (CAEWMPS) in Dhulikhel Municipality and Dharan Sub-metropolitan city of Nepal. The CAEWMPS adopted the construction of water recharge pit at household level in Dharan and recharge ponds at community level in Dhulikhel. The results of household survey reveal that households have employed different coping strategies including minimizing consumption, purchasing from market, harvesting rain water and installing equipment for storing and pumping in both cities. In Dhulikhel, a significant number of households (18.56%) minimize consumption during the dry season but this is not the case in Dharan. Rather, around one-fifth (19.27%) of the households harvest rainwater in Dharan. In addition, households are forced to give-up their regular activities in order to implement coping strategies such as household chores, leisure time, meeting and gardening. The average estimated annual coping cost in Dharan (USD 87.5) is eight times higher than in Dhulikhel (USD 11.05); however, per unit coping cost is nearly equal in both the cities. In terms of benefit-cost ration, the community level recharge ponds in Dhulikhel (5.15) were found to be cost effective compared to the household level recharge pits of Dharan (1.72). These results provide policy makers with a comparative basis for adopting appropriate strategies to tackle problems related to water shortage under city-specific contexts.

Public perceptions of snakes and snakebite management: implications for conservation and human health in southern Nepal.

BACKGROUND: Venomous snakebite and its effects are a source of fear for people living in southern Nepal. As a result, people have developed a negative attitude towards snakes, which can lead to human-snake conflicts that result in killing of snakes. Attempting to kill snakes increases the risk of snakebite, and actual killing of snakes contributes to loss of biodiversity. Currently, snake populations in southern Nepal are thought to be declining, but more research is needed to evaluate the conservation status of snakes. Therefore, we assessed attitudes, knowledge, and awareness of snakes and snakebite by Chitwan National Park's (CNP) buffer zone (BZ) inhabitants in an effort to better understand challenges to snake conservation and snakebite management. The results of this study have the potential to promote biodiversity conservation and increase human health in southern Nepal and beyond. METHODS: We carried out face-to-face interviews of 150 randomly selected CNP BZ inhabitants, adopting a cross-sectional mixed research design and structured and semi-structured questionnaires from January-February 2013. RESULTS: Results indicated that 43 % of respondents disliked snakes, 49 % would exterminate all venomous snakes, and 86 % feared snakes. Farmers were the most negative and teachers were the most ambivalent towards snakes. Respondents were generally unable to identify different snake species, and were almost completely unaware of the need of conserve snakes and how to prevent snakebites. Belief in a snake god, and the ability of snakes to absorb poisonous gases from the atmosphere were among many superstitions that appeared to predispose negativity towards snakes of BZ residents. CONCLUSION: People with predisposed negativity towards snakes were not proponents of snake conservation. Fear, negativity, ambivalence towards, and ignorance about, snakes and the need for snake conservation were strong indicators of the propensity to harm or kill snakes. It seems that if wanton killing of snakes continues, local snake populations will decline, and rare and endangered snake species may even become locally extirpated. Moreover, inappropriate perception and knowledge about snakes and snakebites may put BZ people at increased risk of venomous snakebite. Therefore, intensive, pragmatic educational efforts focused on natural history and ecology of snakes and prevention of snakebite should be undertaken in communities and at schools and universities.

A hospital based epidemiological study of snakebite in Western Development Region, Nepal.

Snakebite is an important and serious medical problem throughout the entire terai region of Nepal. But comprehensive study of snakebite epidemiology in Western Development Region of Nepal is scarce. We described the status of snakebite situation in the region based on retrospective data retrieved from 10 snakebite treatment centers during June 2011 to February 2012. We reported six thousand and nine hundred ninety three snakebites in 2008-2010. Of all, we found 640 (9%) cases envenomed and received anti-venom therapy. We recorded the highest number of snakebites in July, August and September, which account 57% of all snakebite victims, during 15.00 and 21.00 h. People aged 11-20 years were mostly victimized by snakebite as compared to other age groups. Female suffered more than male. The average requirement of polyvalent snake anti-venom was 16 vials. Overall, case fatality rate was 13%.