(Not) being granted the right to belong-Amateur football clubs in Germany.

Empirical studies show that first- and second-generation immigrants are less likely to be members of sports clubs than their non-immigrant peers. Common explanations are cultural differences and socioeconomic disadvantages. However, lower participation rates in amateur sport could be at least partly due to ethnic discrimination. Are minority ethnic groups granted the same right to belong as their non-immigrant peers? To answer this question, this paper uses publicly available data from a field experiment in which mock applications were sent out to over 1,600 football clubs in Germany. Having a foreign-sounding name significantly reduces the likelihood of being invited to participate. The paper concludes that amateur football clubs are not as permeable as they are often perceived to be. It claims that traditional explanations for lower participation rates of immigrants need to be revisited.

Dataset for field experiments analyzing discrimination in amateur soccer.

This paper presents data of field experiments that analyze discrimination in amateur soccer. The studies created fake accounts and asked amateur soccer coaches to come for a trial practice. The fake accounts had either a native- or a foreign-sounding name. The dataset is based on three published studies that analyzed discrimination in 23 countries. The dataset contains 24,915 observations and several variables that are interesting for further research. This data can be used to compare discrimination in amateur soccer with discrimination in diverse fields, such as migration, economics, or political science. For a more detailed discussion, please see the published articles.

Unbiased Decisions Among Women's Basketball Referees.

Decisions often reflect implicit biases. Ethnic, racial, and gender traits are associated with stereotypes that may influence the decision-making process. Previous research shows that referees' decisions in men's professional sports are often biased in favor of racial and nationalistic in-groups. This study examined if similar biases exist in women's professional sports. Additionally, this study analyzed the potential influence of the gender composition of referee teams on rapid decisions. We gathered data on referee foul calls in women's professional basketball in Spain, 2014-2019 and defined important decisions (fifth fouls) and stressful situations (one-possession matches). The main finding is that out-groups based on racial (i.e., Black players) and nationalistic (i.e., foreign players) criteria did not differ in number of foul calls received. In stressful situations, foreign players actually received fewer fouls than Spanish players. Similarly, there was no evidence of bias due to the gender composition of referee teams: foul calls did not differ between all-male and mixed teams. Implications for race and nationality as dynamic social constructs within ethnocentric and social identity theories are discussed.

Race and Employment: The Historical Case of Head Coaches in College Basketball.

This study analyzes how the number of Black coaches in college basketball has evolved since 1947. The analysis puts a focus on the time period after 1973 when regulatory requirements changed and a new Division was established. The change in the number of Divisions created distorted conditions and led to a significant difference in the number of Black coaches within Divisions. We trace a significantly lower number of Black coaches in Division 3 which is still visible 40 years later. The results are time consistent, not clustered geographically, and unrelated to specific institutions. Our results have policy implications for college sports as well as other industries with similar working conditions.