The dissemination of motivational interviewing in Swedish county councils: Results of a randomized controlled trial.

OBJECTIVE: A significant number of Swedish practitioners are offered workshop trainings in motivational interviewing through community-based implementation programs. The objective of this randomized controlled trial was to evaluate to what extent the practitioners acquire and retain skills from additional supervision consisting of feedback based on monitoring of practice. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 174 practitioners in five county councils across Sweden were randomized to one of the study's two groups: 1) Regular county council workshop training, 2) Regular county council workshop training followed by six sessions of supervision. The participant's mean age was 43.3 years, and the majority were females (88.1%). RESULTS: Recruiting participants proved difficult, which may have led to a biased sample of practitioners highly motivated to learn the method. Although slightly different in form and content, all the workshop trainings increased the participants' skills to the same level. Also, consistent with previous research, the additional supervision group showed larger gains in proficiency compared to the group who received workshop training only at the six-month follow-up. However, analyses showed generally maintained levels of skills for all the participants at the follow-up assessment, and the majority of participants did not attain beginning proficiency levels at either post-workshop or follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study address the real-life implications of dissemination of evidence-based practices. The maintained level of elevated skills for all participants is a promising finding. However, the low interest for obtaining additional supervision among the Swedish practitioners is problematic. In addition, neither the workshop trainings nor the additional supervision, although improving skills, were sufficient for most of the participants to reach beginning proficiency levels. This raises questions regarding the most efficient form of training to attain and sustain adequate practice standards, and how to create incentive and interest among practitioners to participate in such training.

Von Willebrand Factor Gene Variants Associate with Herpes simplex Encephalitis.

Herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) is a rare complication of Herpes simplex virus type-1 infection. It results in severe parenchymal damage in the brain. Although viral latency in neurons is very common in the population, it remains unclear why certain individuals develop HSE. Here we explore potential host genetic variants predisposing to HSE. In order to investigate this we used a rat HSE model comparing the HSE susceptible SHR (Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats) with the asymptomatic infection of BN (Brown Norway). Notably, both strains have HSV-1 spread to the CNS at four days after infection. A genome wide linkage analysis of 29 infected HXB/BXH RILs (recombinant inbred lines-generated from the prior two strains), displayed variable susceptibility to HSE enabling the definition of a significant QTL (quantitative trait locus) named Hse6 towards the end of chromosome 4 (160.89-174Mb) containing the Vwf (von Willebrand factor) gene. This was the only gene in the QTL with both cis-regulation in the brain and included several non-synonymous SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphism). Intriguingly, in human chromosome 12 several SNPs within the intronic region between exon 43 and 44 of the VWF gene were associated with human HSE pathogenesis. In particular, rs917859 is nominally associated with an odds ratio of 1.5 (95% CI 1.11-2.02; p-value = 0.008) after genotyping in 115 HSE cases and 428 controls. Although there are possibly several genetic and environmental factors involved in development of HSE, our study identifies variants of the VWF gene as candidates for susceptibility in experimental and human HSE.

Complement receptor 2 is up regulated in the spinal cord following nerve root injury and modulates the spinal cord response.

BACKGROUND: Activation of the complement system has been implicated in both acute and chronic states of neurodegeneration. However, a detailed understanding of this complex network of interacting components is still lacking. METHODS: Large-scale global expression profiling in a rat F2(DAxPVG) intercross identified a strong cis-regulatory influence on the local expression of complement receptor 2 (Cr2) in the spinal cord after ventral root avulsion (VRA). Expression of Cr2 in the spinal cord was studied in a separate cohort of DA and PVG rats at different time-points after VRA, and also following sciatic nerve transection (SNT) in the same strains. Consequently, Cr2 (-/-) mice and Wt controls were used to further explore the role of Cr2 in the spinal cord following SNT. The in vivo experiments were complemented by astrocyte and microglia cell cultures. RESULTS: Expression of Cr2 in naïve spinal cord was low but strongly up regulated at 5-7 days after both VRA and SNT. Levels of Cr2 expression, as well as astrocyte activation, was higher in PVG rats than DA rats following both VRA and SNT. Subsequent in vitro studies proposed astrocytes as the main source of Cr2 expression. A functional role for Cr2 is suggested by the finding that transgenic mice lacking Cr2 displayed increased loss of synaptic nerve terminals following nerve injury. We also detected increased levels of soluble CR2 (sCR2) in the cerebrospinal fluid of rats following VRA. CONCLUSIONS: These results demonstrate that local expression of Cr2 in the central nervous system is part of the axotomy reaction and is suggested to modulate subsequent complement mediated effects.

Fine mapping of bone structure and strength QTLs in heterogeneous stock rat.

We previously demonstrated that skeletal structure and strength phenotypes vary considerably in heterogeneous stock (HS) rats. These phenotypes were found to be strongly heritable, suggesting that the HS rat model represents a unique genetic resource for dissecting the complex genetic etiology underlying bone fragility. The purpose of this study was to identify and localize genes associated with bone structure and strength phenotypes using 1524 adult male and female HS rats between 17 to 20 weeks of age. Structure measures included femur length, neck width, head width; femur and lumbar spine (L3-5) areas obtained by DXA; and cross-sectional areas (CSA) at the midshaft, distal femur and femoral neck, and the 5th lumbar vertebra measured by CT. In addition, measures of strength of the whole femur and femoral neck were obtained. Approximately 70,000 polymorphic SNPs distributed throughout the rat genome were selected for genotyping, with a mean linkage disequilibrium coefficient between neighboring SNPs of 0.95. Haplotypes were estimated across the entire genome for each rat using a multipoint haplotype reconstruction method, which calculates the probability of descent at each locus from each of the 8 HS founder strains. The haplotypes were then tested for association with each structure and strength phenotype via a mixed model with covariate adjustment. We identified quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for structure phenotypes on chromosomes 3, 8, 10, 12, 17 and 20, and QTLs for strength phenotypes on chromosomes 5, 10 and 11 that met a conservative genome-wide empiric significance threshold (FDR=5%; P<3×10(-6)). Importantly, most QTLs were localized to very narrow genomic regions (as small as 0.3 Mb and up to 3 Mb), each harboring a small set of candidate genes, both novel and previously shown to have roles in skeletal development and homeostasis.

High-resolution genome screen for bone mineral density in heterogeneous stock rat.

We previously demonstrated that skeletal mass, structure, and biomechanical properties vary considerably in heterogeneous stock (HS) rat strains. In addition, we observed strong heritability for several of these skeletal phenotypes in the HS rat model, suggesting that it represents a unique genetic resource for dissecting the complex genetics underlying bone fragility. The purpose of this study was to identify and localize genes associated with bone mineral density in HS rats. We measured bone phenotypes from 1524 adult male and female HS rats between 17 and 20 weeks of age. Phenotypes included dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) measurements for bone mineral content and areal bone mineral density (aBMD) for femur and lumbar spine (L3-L5), and volumetric BMD measurements by CT for the midshaft and distal femur, femur neck, and fifth lumbar vertebra (L5). A total of 70,000 polymorphic single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) distributed throughout the genome were selected from genotypes obtained from the Affymetrix rat custom SNPs array for the HS rat population. These SNPs spanned the HS rat genome with a mean linkage disequilibrium coefficient between neighboring SNPs of 0.95. Haplotypes were estimated across the entire genome for each rat using a multipoint haplotype reconstruction method, which calculates the probability of descent for each genotyped locus from each of the eight founder HS strains. The haplotypes were tested for association with each bone density phenotype via a mixed model with covariate adjustment. We identified quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for BMD phenotypes on chromosomes 2, 9, 10, and 13 meeting a conservative genomewide empiric significance threshold (false discovery rate [FDR] = 5%; p < 3 × 10(-6)). Importantly, most QTLs were localized to very small genomic regions (1-3 megabases [Mb]), allowing us to identify a narrow set of potential candidate genes including both novel genes and genes previously shown to have roles in skeletal development and homeostasis.

Unbiased expression mapping identifies a link between the complement and cholinergic systems in the rat central nervous system.

The complement system is activated in a wide spectrum of CNS diseases and is suggested to play a role in degenerative phenomena such as elimination of synaptic terminals. Still, little is known of mechanisms regulating complement activation in the CNS. Loss of synaptic terminals in the spinal cord after an experimental nerve injury is increased in the inbred DA strain compared with the PVG strain and is associated with expression of the upstream complement components C1q and C3, in the absence of membrane attack complex activation and neutrophil infiltration. To further dissect pathways regulating complement expression, we performed genome-wide expression profiling and linkage analysis in a large F2(DA × PVG) intercross, which identified quantitative trait loci regulating expression of C1qa, C1qb, C3, and C9. Unlike C1qa, C1qb, and C9, which all displayed distinct coregulation with different cis-regulated C-type lectins, C3 was regulated in a coexpression network immediately downstream of butyrylcholinesterase. Butyrylcholinesterase hydrolyses acetylcholine, which exerts immunoregulatory effects partly through TNF-α pathways. Accordingly, increased C3, but not C1q, expression was demonstrated in rat and mouse glia following TNF-α stimulation, which was abrogated in a dose-dependent manner by acetylcholine. These findings demonstrate new pathways regulating CNS complement expression using unbiased mapping in an experimental in vivo system. A direct link between cholinergic activity and complement activation is supported by in vitro experiments. The identification of distinct pathways subjected to regulation by naturally occurring genetic variability is of relevance for the understanding of disease mechanisms in neurologic conditions characterized by neuronal injury and complement activation.

Combining genetic mapping with genome-wide expression in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis highlights a gene network enriched for T cell functions and candidate genes regulating autoimmunity.

The experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is an autoimmune disease of the central nervous system commonly used to study multiple sclerosis (MS). We combined clinical EAE phenotypes with genome-wide expression profiling in spleens from 150 backcross rats between susceptible DA and resistant PVG rat strains during the chronic EAE phase. This enabled correlation of transcripts with genotypes, other transcripts and clinical EAE phenotypes and implicated potential genetic causes and pathways in EAE. We detected 2285 expression quantitative trait loci (eQTLs). Sixty out of 599 cis-eQTLs overlapped well-known EAE QTLs and constitute positional candidate genes, including Ifit1 (Eae7), Atg7 (Eae20-22), Klrc3 (eEae22) and Mfsd4 (Eae17). A trans-eQTL that overlaps Eae23a regulated a large number of small RNAs and implicates a master regulator of transcription. We defined several disease-correlated networks enriched for pathways involved in cell-mediated immunity. They include C-type lectins, G protein coupled receptors, mitogen-activated protein kinases, transmembrane proteins, suppressors of transcription (Jundp2 and Nr1d1) and STAT transcription factors (Stat4) involved in interferon signaling. The most significant network was enriched for T cell functions, similar to genetic findings in MS, and revealed both established and novel gene interactions. Transcripts in the network have been associated with T cell proliferation and differentiation, the TCR signaling and regulation of regulatory T cells. A number of network genes and their family members have been associated with MS and/or other autoimmune diseases. Combining disease and genome-wide expression phenotypes provides a link between disease risk genes and distinct molecular pathways that are dysregulated during chronic autoimmune inflammation.

Combined sequence-based and genetic mapping analysis of complex traits in outbred rats.

Genetic mapping on fully sequenced individuals is transforming understanding of the relationship between molecular variation and variation in complex traits. Here we report a combined sequence and genetic mapping analysis in outbred rats that maps 355 quantitative trait loci for 122 phenotypes. We identify 35 causal genes involved in 31 phenotypes, implicating new genes in models of anxiety, heart disease and multiple sclerosis. The relationship between sequence and genetic variation is unexpectedly complex: at approximately 40% of quantitative trait loci, a single sequence variant cannot account for the phenotypic effect. Using comparable sequence and mapping data from mice, we show that the extent and spatial pattern of variation in inbred rats differ substantially from those of inbred mice and that the genetic variants in orthologous genes rarely contribute to the same phenotype in both species.

Genetic variability in the rat Aplec C-type lectin gene cluster regulates lymphocyte trafficking and motor neuron survival after traumatic nerve root injury.

BACKGROUND: C-type lectin (CLEC) receptors are important for initiating and shaping immune responses; however, their role in inflammatory reactions in the central nervous system after traumatic injuries is not known. The antigen-presenting lectin-like receptor gene complex (Aplec) contains a few CLEC genes, which differ genetically among inbred rat strains. It was originally thought to be a region that regulates susceptibility to autoimmune arthritis, autoimmune neuroinflammation and infection. METHODS: The inbred rat strains DA and PVG differ substantially in degree of spinal cord motor neuron death following ventral root avulsion (VRA), which is a reproducible model of localized nerve root injury. A large F2 (DAxPVG) intercross was bred and genotyped after which global expressional profiling was performed on spinal cords from F2 rats subjected to VRA. A congenic strain, Aplec, created by transferring a small PVG segment containing only seven genes, all C-type lectins, ontoDA background, was used for further experiments together with the parental strains. RESULTS: Global expressional profiling of F2 (DAxPVG) spinal cords after VRA and genome-wide eQTL mapping identified a strong cis-regulated difference in the expression of Clec4a3 (Dcir3), a C-type lectin gene that is a part of the Aplec cluster. Second, we demonstrate significantly improved motor neuron survival and also increased T-cell infiltration into the spinal cord of congenic rats carrying Aplec from PVG on DA background compared to the parental DA strain. In vitro studies demonstrate that the Aplec genes are expressed on microglia and upregulated upon inflammatory stimuli. However, there were no differences in expression of general microglial activation markers between Aplec and parental DA rats, suggesting that the Aplec genes are involved in the signaling events rather than the primary activation of microglia occurring upon nerve root injury. CONCLUSIONS: In summary, we demonstrate that a genetic variation in Aplec occurring among inbred strains regulates both survival of axotomized motor neurons and the degree of lymphocyte infiltration. These results demonstrate a hitherto unknown role for CLECs for intercellular communication that occurs after damage to the nervous system, which is relevant for neuronal survival.

The calcitonin receptor gene is a candidate for regulation of susceptibility to herpes simplex type 1 neuronal infection leading to encephalitis in rat.

Herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) is a fatal infection of the central nervous system (CNS) predominantly caused by Herpes simplex virus type 1. Factors regulating the susceptibility to HSE are still largely unknown. To identify host gene(s) regulating HSE susceptibility we performed a genome-wide linkage scan in an intercross between the susceptible DA and the resistant PVG rat. We found one major quantitative trait locus (QTL), Hse1, on rat chromosome 4 (confidence interval 24.3-31 Mb; LOD score 29.5) governing disease susceptibility. Fine mapping of Hse1 using recombinants, haplotype mapping and sequencing, as well as expression analysis of all genes in the interval identified the calcitonin receptor gene (Calcr) as the main candidate, which also is supported by functional studies. Thus, using unbiased genetic approach variability in Calcr was identified as potentially critical for infection and viral spread to the CNS and subsequent HSE development.

Heterogeneous stock rat: a unique animal model for mapping genes influencing bone fragility.

Previously, we demonstrated that skeletal mass, structure and biomechanical properties vary considerably among 11 different inbred rat strains. Subsequently, we performed quantitative trait loci (QTL) analysis in four inbred rat strains (F344, LEW, COP and DA) for different bone phenotypes and identified several candidate genes influencing various bone traits. The standard approach to narrowing QTL intervals down to a few candidate genes typically employs the generation of congenic lines, which is time consuming and often not successful. A potential alternative approach is to use a highly genetically informative animal model resource capable of delivering very high resolution gene mapping such as Heterogeneous stock (HS) rat. HS rat was derived from eight inbred progenitors: ACI/N, BN/SsN, BUF/N, F344/N, M520/N, MR/N, WKY/N and WN/N. The genetic recombination pattern generated across 50 generations in these rats has been shown to deliver ultra-high even gene-level resolution for complex genetic studies. The purpose of this study is to investigate the usefulness of the HS rat model for fine mapping and identification of genes underlying bone fragility phenotypes. We compared bone geometry, density and strength phenotypes at multiple skeletal sites in HS rats with those obtained from five of the eight progenitor inbred strains. In addition, we estimated the heritability for different bone phenotypes in these rats and employed principal component analysis to explore relationships among bone phenotypes in the HS rats. Our study demonstrates that significant variability exists for different skeletal phenotypes in HS rats compared with their inbred progenitors. In addition, we estimated high heritability for several bone phenotypes and biologically interpretable factors explaining significant overall variability, suggesting that the HS rat model could be a unique genetic resource for rapid and efficient discovery of the genetic determinants of bone fragility.

Influence of perineurial cells and Toll-like receptors 2 and 9 on Herpes simplex type 1 entry to the central nervous system in rat encephalitis.

Herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) is a rare disease with high mortality and significant morbidity among survivors. We have previously shown that susceptibility to HSE was host-strain dependent, as severe, lethal HSE developed after injection of human Herpes simplex type 1 virus (HSV-1) into the whiskers area of DA rats, whereas PVG rats remained completely asymptomatic. In the present study we investigated the early immunokinetics in these strains to address the underlying molecular mechanisms for the observed difference. The virus distribution and the immunological responses were compared in the whiskers area, trigeminal ganglia and brain stem after 12 hours and the first four days following infection using immunohistochemistry and qRT-PCR. A conspicuous immunopathological finding was a strain-dependent difference in the spread of the HSV-1 virus to the trigeminal ganglia, only seen in DA rats already from 12 hpi. In the whiskers area infected perineurial cells were abundant in the susceptible DA strain after 2 dpi, whereas in the resistant PVG rats HSV-1 spread was confined only to the epineurium. In both strains activation of Iba1(+)/ED1(+) phagocytic cells followed the distribution pattern of HSV-1 staining, which was visible already at 12 hours after infection. Notably, in PVG rats higher mRNA expression of Toll-like receptors (Tlr) -2 and -9, together with increased staining for Iba1/ED1 was detected in the whiskers area. In contrast, all other Tlr-pathway markers were expressed at higher levels in the susceptible DA rats. Our data demonstrate the novel observation that genetically encoded properties of the host nerve and perineurial cells, recruitment of phagocyting cells together with the low expression of Tlr2 and -9 in the periphery define the susceptibility to HSV-1 entry into the nervous system.

Fine mapping of gene regions regulating neurodegeneration.

BACKGROUND: Damage to nerve cells and axons leading to neurodegeneration is a characteristic feature of many neurological diseases. The degree of genetic influence on susceptibility to axotomy-induced neuronal death has so far been unknown. We have examined two gene regions, Vra1 and Vra2, previously linked to nerve cell loss after ventral root avulsion in a rat F2 intercross between the DA and PVG inbred rat strains. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: In this study, we use two generations (G8 and G10 cohorts) of an advanced intercross line between DA and PVG(av1) to reproduce linkage to Vra1 and to fine-map this region. By isolating the effect from Vra1 in congenic strains, we demonstrate that Vra1 significantly regulates the loss of motoneurons after avulsion. The regulatory effect mediated by Vra1 thus resides in a congenic fragment of 9 megabases. Furthermore, we have used the advanced intercross lines to give more support to Vra2, originally detected as a suggestive QTL. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: The results demonstrated here show that naturally occurring allelic variations affect susceptibility to axotomy-induced nerve cell death. Vra1 and Vra2 represent the first quantitative trait loci regulating this phenotype that are characterized and fine mapped in an advanced intercross line. In addition, congenic strains provide experimental evidence for the Vra1 effect on the extent of injury-induced neurodegeneration. Identification of the underlying genetic variations will increase our understanding of the regulation and mechanisms of neurodegeneration.

Identification of gene regions regulating inflammatory microglial response in the rat CNS after nerve injury.

Local CNS inflammation takes place in many neurological disorders and is important for autoimmune neuroinflammation. Microglial activation is strain-dependent in rats and differential MHC class II expression is influenced by variations in the Mhc2ta gene. Despite sharing Mhc2ta and MHC class II alleles, BN and LEW.1N rats differ in MHC class II expression after ventral root avulsion (VRA). We studied MHC class II expression and glial activation markers in BN rats after VRA. Our results demonstrate that MHC class II expression originates from a subpopulation of IBA1(+), ED1(-), and ED2(-) microglia. We subsequently performed a genome-wide linkage scan in an F2(BNxLEW.1N) population, to investigate gene regions regulating this inflammatory response. Alongside MHC class II, we studied the expression of MHC class I, co-stimulatory molecules, complement components, microglial markers and Il1b. MHC class II and other transcripts were commonly regulated by gene regions on chromosomes 1 and 7. Furthermore, a common region on chromosome 10 regulated expression of complement and co-stimulatory molecules, while a region on chromosome 11 regulated MHC class I. We also detected epistatic interactions in the regulation of the inflammatory process. These results reveal the complex regulation of CNS inflammation by several gene regions, which may have relevance for disease.

Differential nerve injury-induced expression of MHC class II in the mouse correlates to genetic variability in the type I promoter of C2ta.

Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II is of critical importance for the induction of immune responses. Levels of MHC class II in the nervous system are normally low, but expression is up-regulated in many disease conditions. In rat and human, variation in the MHC class II transactivator gene (C2ta) is associated with differential expression of MHC class II and susceptibility to autoimmune disease. Here we have characterized the response to facial nerve transection in 7 inbred mouse strains (C57BL/6J, DBA/2J, 129X1/SvJ, BALB/cJ, SJL/J, CBA/J, and NOD). The results demonstrate differences in expression of C2ta and markers for MHC class I and II expression, glial activation, and T cell infiltration. Expression levels of C2ta and Cd74 followed similar patterns, in contrast to MHC class I and markers of glial activation. The regulatory region of the C2ta gene was subsequently sequenced in the four strains (C57BL/6/J, DBA/2J, SJL/J and 129X1/SvJ) that represented the phenotypical extremes with regard to C2ta/Cd74 expression. We found 3 single nucleotide polymorphisms in the type I (pI) and type III (pIII) promoters of C2ta, respectively. Higher expression of pI in 129X1/SvJ correlated with the pI haplotype specific for this strain. Furthermore, congenic strains carrying the 129X1/SvJ C2ta allele on B6 background displayed significantly higher C2ta and Cd74 expression compared to parental controls. We conclude that genetic polymorphisms in the type I promoter of C2ta regulates differential expression of MHC class II, but not MHC class I, Cd3 and other markers of glial activation.

A resource for the simultaneous high-resolution mapping of multiple quantitative trait loci in rats: the NIH heterogeneous stock.

The laboratory rat (Rattus norvegicus) is a key tool for the study of medicine and pharmacology for human health. A large database of phenotypes for integrated fields such as cardiovascular, neuroscience, and exercise physiology exists in the literature. However, the molecular characterization of the genetic loci that give rise to variation in these traits has proven to be difficult. Here we show how one obstacle to progress, the fine-mapping of quantitative trait loci (QTL), can be overcome by using an outbred population of rats. By use of a genetically heterogeneous stock of rats, we map a locus contributing to variation in a fear-related measure (two-way active avoidance in the shuttle box) to a region on chromosome 5 containing nine genes. By establishing a protocol measuring multiple phenotypes including immunology, neuroinflammation, and hematology, as well as cardiovascular, metabolic, and behavioral traits, we establish the rat HS as a new resource for the fine-mapping of QTLs contributing to variation in complex traits of biomedical relevance.

Host strain-dependent difference in susceptibility in a rat model of herpes simplex type 1 encephalitis.

Herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) is characterized by severe focal brain inflammation leading to substantial loss of nervous tissue. The authors established a model of Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV)-1-induced acute encephalitis in the rat by injecting into the whiskers' area a virus strain isolated from a fatal human HSE case. The model might resemble natural propagation of HSV-1 in humans; spreading from the mouth and lips via the trigeminal nerve to trigeminal ganglia and subsequently entering the central nervous system (CNS). HSV-1 infected Dark Agouti (DA) rats developed a well-synchronized disease and died 5 days after inoculation. HSV-1 detection by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), virus isolation and immunohistochemistry, magnetic resonance imaging, and histopathological examination verified dramatic encephalitis mainly in the brainstem, but also in the olfactory bulb and other segments of the brain of diseased rats. In contrast, Piebald Virol Glaxo (PVG) rats were completely resistant to disease, displaying a more rapid clearance of peripheral infection and no evidence of virus entering into neither the trigeminal ganglia nor the CNS. These results suggest a regulation of susceptibility to HSV-1-induced encephalitis at the level of peripheral infection and subsequent neuronal uptake/transport of the virus. This provides a basis for future positioning of genetic polymorphisms regulating HSE and for dissection of important pathogenetic mechanisms of this severe human disease.

Vra4 congenic rats with allelic differences in the class II transactivator gene display altered susceptibility to experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis.

Presentation of Ag bound to MHC class II (MHC II) molecules to CD4+ T cells is a key event in adaptive immune responses. Genetic differences in MHC II expression in the rat CNS were recently positioned to allelic variability in the CIITA gene (Mhc2ta), located within the Vra4 locus on rat chromosome 10. In this study, we have examined reciprocal Vra4-congenic strains on the DA and PVGav1 backgrounds, respectively. After experimental nerve injury the strain-specific MHC II expression on microglia was reversed in the congenic strains. Similar findings were obtained after intraparenchymal injection of IFN-gamma in the brain. Expression of MHC class II was also lower on B cells and dendritic cells from the DA.PVGav1-Vra4- congenic strain compared with DA rats after in vitro stimulation with IFN-gamma. We next explored whether Vra4 may affect the outcome of experimental autoimmune disease. In experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis induced by immunization with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein, DA.PVGav1-Vra4 rats displayed a lower disease incidence and milder disease course compared with DA, whereas both PVGav1 and PVGav1.DA-Vra4 rats were completely protected. These results demonstrate that naturally occurring allelic differences in Mhc2ta have profound effects on the quantity of MHC II expression in the CNS and on immune cells and that this genetic variability also modulates susceptibility to autoimmune neuroinflammation.

Genetic analysis of neuropathic pain-like behavior following peripheral nerve injury suggests a role of the major histocompatibility complex in development of allodynia.

Neuropathic pain is a common consequence of damage to the nervous system. We here report a genetic analysis of development of neuropathic pain-like behaviors after unilateral photochemically-induced ischemic sciatic nerve injury in a panel of inbred rat strains known to display different susceptibility to autoimmune neuroinflammation. Pain behavior was initially characterized in Dark-Agouti (DA; RT1(av1)), Piebald Virol Glaxo (PVG; RT1(c)), and in the major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-congenic strain PVG-RT1(av1). All strains developed mechanical hypersensitivity (allodynia) following nerve injury. However, the extent and duration of allodynia varied significantly among the strains, with PVG displaying more severe allodynia compared to DA rats. Interestingly, the response of PVG-RT1(avRT1) was similar to that of DA, suggesting regulation by the MHC locus. This notion was subsequently confirmed in an F2 cohort derived from crossing of the PVG and PVG-RT1(av1)strains, where allodynia was reduced in homozygous or heterozygous carriers of the RT1(av1) allele in comparison to rats homozygous for the RT1(c) allele. These results indicate that certain allelic variants of the MHC could influence susceptibility to develop and maintain neuropathic pain-like behavior following peripheral nerve injury in rats.

Recovery from spinal cord injury differs between rat strains in a major histocompatibility complex-independent manner.

Inflammation is a common characteristic of spinal cord injury. The nature of this response, whether it is beneficial or detrimental, has been the subject of debate. It has been reported that susceptibility to autoimmunity is correlated with increased functional impairment following spinal cord injury. As the ability to mount an autoimmune response has most consistently been associated with certain haplotypes of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC), we analysed the possible effects of the MHC haplotype on functional impairment and recovery following spinal cord injury. A contusion injury was induced in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis-susceptible and -resistant rats [Dark Agouti, Lewis and Piebald Viral Glaxo (PVG), respectively]. We found that locomotion recovered significantly better in Dark Agouti rats compared with PVG and Lewis rats but an F2 intercross (PVG x PVG-RT1(av1)) excluded the possibility that this difference was MHC haplotype-dependent. Thus, we conclude that recovery following spinal cord injury is subject to considerable genetic heterogeneity that is not coupled to the MHC haplotype region. Continued research of genetic variants regulating recovery following spinal cord injury is warranted.