Father and mother harsh parenting and adult romantic relationships over time: Individual behavior during adolescence.

The present study examined how father and mother harsh parenting as experienced in middle adolescence impacted individual behavior during late adolescence and subsequent harsh couple interaction with their romantic partner in adulthood using a prospective longitudinal design (n = 117 males, 239 females). Data were collected during home visits by a trained interviewer in which family members completed questionnaires and participated in videotaped structured interaction tasks that were coded by trained observers. We assessed the influence of harsh parenting in adolescence (ages 15 and 16, Time 1) on individual processes (e.g., academic difficulty, substance use, and low self-esteem; age 18, Time 2) and harsh couple interaction in adulthood (ages 29 and 31, Time 3; age 34, Time 4). Father harsh parenting was associated with low self-esteem for sons and daughters and substance use for sons. Mother harsh parenting was associated with academic difficulty for adolescents. Academic difficulty and low self-esteem for daughters were further associated with harsh couple interaction at Time 3, while substance use for adolescents was associated with harsh couple interaction at Time 3, which remained stable through established adulthood. We highlight the unique effects of father and mother harsh parenting on later romantic relationship quality through individual mechanisms in late adulthood, for daughters and sons, in the context of the family system. Understanding these nuances as adolescents approach adulthood have implications for programming and policy aimed at strengthening the parent-child relationship in adolescence to allow for the development of healthy romantic relationships later in life. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Associations between adversity in the family of origin and hair cortisol concentration in adulthood.

The current study examined associations between parental adversities as experienced in adolescence and hair cortisol concentration (HCC) 26 years later (n = 47). Specifically, bivariate correlations and linear regressions were used to examine harsh parenting as well as parental economic pressure, emotional distress, and body mass index (BMI) when their adolescent was between 15 and 16 years old (parent average age 43). HCC was measured when the adolescent was an adult (average 42 years old), at a similar age to when their parent(s) first participated in the study. We also assessed their economic pressure, emotional distress, obesity, and perceived stress in adulthood. For results across generations, parental economic pressure experienced during adolescence was significantly related to HCC when these adolescents were adults. None of the adult economic pressure, emotional distress, BMI, and perceived stress variables were associated with their HCC. Interestingly, there were significant associations among adult perceived stress, economic pressure, emotional distress, and obesity. Thus, the association between parental economic pressure and adult HCC is independent of adult adversities. Results highlight early economic adversity as a possible childhood stressor that has implications throughout the life course.

The influence of sibling relationship quality on emotional distress from adolescence to early midlife.

This study examines continuity and change in sibling relationship quality (warmth and hostility) from adolescence to adulthood, as well as how changes in sibling relationship quality across developmental stages are associated with early midlife emotional distress. Data come from the Family Transitions Project, a two-decade longitudinal study of youth and their families followed from adolescence to adulthood. The present study included target adolescent self-report data on warmth and hostility toward and received from their sibling over ten data points from ages 15 to 31. Target to sibling warmth decreased from ages 23 to 31, whereas sibling to target warmth increased in emerging adulthood and then decreased into adulthood. Both sibling to target and target to sibling hostility decreased in adolescence and emerging adulthood and then remained low and stable from emerging adulthood to adulthood. Target to sibling warmth at age 23 predicted lower levels of anxiety at age 41. Sibling to target warmth at age 23 also predicted lower levels of depressive symptoms. Target to sibling hostility at age 23 predicted anxiety and hostility in middle adulthood, whereas sibling to target hostility at age 23 predicted anxiety, depressive symptoms, and hostility. In addition, a slower decline in sibling to target hostility from ages 15 to 19 was associated with higher levels of anxiety at age 41. This study is one of the first to examine the quality of sibling relationships across developmental stages and exemplifies how relationship quality between siblings from adolescence to young adulthood can influence emotional distress into early midlife. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

The intergenerational transmission of economic adversity, BMI, and emotional distress from adolescence to middle adulthood.

The present study examined the intergenerational transmission of economic adversity, as well as physical and mental health across generations. Specifically, we examined the effects of parental economic adversity, body mass index (BMI), and emotional distress during the child's adolescence on their economic adversity, BMI, and emotional distress in middle adulthood. The study included 366 Generation 1 (G1) mothers and fathers and their adolescents (Generation 2; G2) in middle adulthood. G1 behavior was examined when G2 was 16 years old and G2 behavior was assessed at Age 42. In line with aspects of the family stress model, economic hardship was related to economic pressure, which in turn was related to emotional distress for both G1 and G2. For each generation, economic pressure was also associated with BMI. There was also evidence of the intergenerational transmission of economic hardship, BMI, and emotional distress from G1 to G2. Finally, the intergenerational transmission of economic adversity in the family of origin to adult health outcomes was explained by these same health behaviors of the first generation. Results suggest that economic adversity and parental health behaviors as experienced in adolescence have long-term economic and health consequences into middle adulthood. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Adolescent predictors of psychiatric disorders in adulthood: The role of emotional distress and problem drinking in emerging adulthood.

The current study evaluated risk factors in adolescence on problem drinking and emotional distress in late adolescence and emerging adulthood, and meeting criteria for diagnosed disorders in adulthood. The study included 501 parents and their adolescent who participated from middle adolescence to adulthood. Risk factors in middle adolescence (age 18) included parent alcohol use, adolescent alcohol use, and parent and adolescent emotional distress. In late adolescence (age 18), binge drinking and emotional distress were assessed, and in emerging adulthood (age 25), alcohol problems and emotional distress were examined. Meeting criteria for substance use, behavioral, affective, or anxiety disorders were examined between the ages of 26 and 31. Results showed parent alcohol use predicted substance use disorder through late adolescent binge drinking and emerging adulthood alcohol problems. Behavioral disorders were indirectly predicted by adolescent and emerging adult emotional distress. Affective disorders were indirectly predicted by parent emotional distress through adolescent emotional distress. Finally, anxiety disorders were predicted by parent alcohol use via adolescent drinking; parent emotional distress via adolescent emotional distress, and through adolescent alcohol use and emotional distress. Results provided support for the intergenerational transmission of problem drinking and emotional distress on meeting criteria for diagnosed psychiatric disorders in adulthood.

Pathways of the family stress model in midlife on physical health in later adulthood.

The current study examined economic adversity and physical health outcomes in line with the family stress model (FSM) for husbands and wives in enduring marriages. Data came from 243 husbands and wives who participated from early middle to later adulthood. Assessments included observational and self-report measures. Economic hardship and economic pressure were assessed in early middle adulthood. Feelings of hostility and observed harsh couple interaction were examined in middle adulthood, and physical impairment was assessed in later adulthood. Results indicated that economic hardship related to economic pressure. In addition, economic pressure indirectly related to physical impairment via hostility and harsh couple interaction. For husbands, economic pressure was also directly associated with their own physical impairment in later adulthood. Finally, economic pressure was indirectly associated with husband to wife harsh couple interaction through wife hostility. Similarly, economic pressure was indirectly associated with wife to husband harsh couple interaction through husband hostility. Results suggest that economic adversity as experienced in early middle adulthood has long-term health consequences into later adulthood. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Positive parenting, effortful control, and developmental outcomes across early childhood.

The current study evaluated bidirectional associations between mother and father positive parenting and child effortful control. Data were drawn from 220 families when children were 3, 4, 5, and 6 years old. Parenting and effortful control were assessed when the child was 3, 4, and 5 years old. These variables were used to statistically predict child externalizing and school performance assessed when the child was 6 years old. The study used random intercept cross-lagged panel models to evaluate within-person and between-person associations between parenting and effortful control. Results suggest that prior positive parenting was associated with later effortful control, whereas effortful control was not associated with subsequent parenting from ages 3 to 5. Stable between-child differences in effortful control from ages 3 to 5 were associated with school performance at age 6. These stable between-child differences in effortful control were correlated with externalizing at age 3. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

The intergenerational transmission of harsh parenting, substance use, and emotional distress: Impact on the third-generation child.

The current study evaluated the intergenerational transmission of harsh parenting, substance use, and emotional distress across generations and the association with child aggression. The study included 218 Generation 1 (G1) mothers and fathers, their adolescent (Generation 2; G2) who participated from middle adolescence through adulthood, and the 3rd-generation (G3) child between ages 3-5 years and 6-10 years. G1 behavior was examined when G2 was 16 and 18 years old; G2 alcohol problems and marijuana use were assessed when G2 was 19 and 21 years old. G2 emotional distress and harsh parenting were examined when the G3 child was between 3 and 5 years old. Finally, G3 aggression was assessed between 6 and 10 years old. Results showed continuity of G1 behavior when G2 was in adolescence to G2 behavior in adulthood. G1 alcohol problems and G1 harsh parenting were both associated with G3 aggression through G2 alcohol problems, G2 emotional distress, and G2 harsh parenting. Results suggest that G1 problem behavior as experienced by G2 adolescents in the family of origin plays an important role in G2 alcohol problems in emerging adulthood, which leads to G2 emotional distress and G2 harsh parenting in adulthood, which is related to G3 aggression in the early elementary school years. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Couple Interaction and Child Social Competence: The Role of Parenting and Attachment.

The current study examined the association between positive couple interaction and child social competence as mediated through positive parenting and parent-child attachment security. Prospective, longitudinal data came from 209 mothers, fathers, and their biological child. Information regarding observed positive couple interaction, observed positive parenting, and parent-child attachment security were assessed when the child was 2 to 4 years old, and child social competence was assessed at 5 years old. Mothers and fathers were analyzed separately in the model. Results indicated that for both mothers and fathers, positive couple interaction was indirectly associated with child social competence through positive parenting and parent-child attachment. These pathways remained statistically significant even after child social competence at age 2 to 4 was taken into account. Results suggest that couple interaction spills over into parenting which impacts parent-child attachment, which is associated with positive child developmental outcomes.

The Influence of Economic Pressure on Emerging Adult Binge Drinking: Testing the Family Stress Model over Time.

The Family Stress Model proposes that disrupted family processes may help explain the association between economic adversity and poor child developmental outcomes. In this study, the Family Stress Model was tested across adolescence to emerging adulthood. Participants included 451 rural White youth who participated with their parents from age 13-23 (52% female). The data were analyzed at five developmental time periods with separate pathways for mothers and fathers. The findings reveal for both parents that economic pressure at time 1 (age 13) led to parental emotional distress which was related to harsh couple interaction at time 2 (ages 14 and 15). This marital conflict was related to harsh parenting toward the adolescent (time 2), which was then directly associated with higher levels of offspring drinking when youth were in middle adolescence (age 16) at time 3. Alcohol use in middle adolescence was associated with binge drinking in late adolescence (age 18, time 4) into emerging adulthood (age 23, time 5). Drinking behaviors did not differ for boys and girls. The current results show that economic adversity has an effect on family processes which influence offspring binge drinking patterns in later adolescence that continue into emerging adulthood.

The Association between Household Food Insecurity and Body Mass Index: A Prospective Growth Curve Analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the association between food insecurity and body mass index (BMI) from early adolescence to adulthood. STUDY DESIGN: Growth curve analyses were performed. Sex differences were examined by conducting the analyses separately by sex. Ten data points were examined over a 16-year period from age 15 to 31 years. Data were obtained from the Family Transitions Project, a longitudinal study of 559 adolescents and their families that was initiated in 1989 in the Midwest. Primarily rural, non-Hispanic whites were selected based on the economic farm crisis. We examined participants from adolescence to adulthood from 1991 through 2007. Measures included a 2-item food insecurity construct and BMI as indicated by self-reported height and weight from adolescence through middle adulthood. These associations were analyzed using prospective growth curve modeling. RESULTS: Our analyses indicated a general increase in BMI with age, whereas food insecurity declined over time. Higher levels of food insecurity at age 15 years led to a more rapid increase in BMI. Finally, a positive relationship was found between the changes in food insecurity and BMI over time. These associations held only for females. CONCLUSION: Our results argue for increasing access to food during key developmental periods such as early adolescence, which could help reduce the long-term implications for health, particularly BMI in girls.

The Association of Harsh Parenting, Parent-Child Communication, and Parental Alcohol Use With Male Alcohol Use Into Emerging Adulthood.

PURPOSE: This study investigates the association between mother and father harsh parenting, and parent-child communication, and parental alcohol use on males' alcohol use from early adolescence into emerging adulthood. METHODS: Data come from the Iowa Youth and Families Project, a prospective 28-year longitudinal study of rural Midwestern youth and their families. Mother and father harsh parenting, parent-child communication, and alcohol use were assessed at time 1 when males were in early adolescence (13 years old, n = 215). Target male alcohol use was assessed at time 2 during late adolescence (18 and 19 years old, n = 206, 96% follow-up rate), and at time 3 in emerging adulthood (23 and 25 years old, n = 197, 92% follow-up rate). RESULTS: Results obtained from structural equation modeling using Mplus, version 7, statistical software indicated that father harsh parenting in early adolescence was directly associated with alcohol use in emerging adulthood. Mother communication was negatively associated while father alcohol use was positively associated with adolescent alcohol use in late adolescence and emerging adulthood. Alcohol use in late adolescence was significantly related to alcohol use in emerging adulthood. CONCLUSION: This study offers unique insights into how mother- and father-son dyads differ in communication and parenting styles, as well as how these associations influence adolescent male alcohol use continuing into emerging adulthood. Multiple informants utilized in the current study provide a more complex understanding of how each parent uniquely contributes to the role of their adolescent's alcohol use in late adolescence into emerging adulthood.