Scanless two-photon voltage imaging.

Two-photon voltage imaging has long been heralded as a transformative approach capable of answering many long-standing questions in modern neuroscience. However, exploiting its full potential requires the development of novel imaging approaches well suited to the photophysical properties of genetically encoded voltage indicators. We demonstrate that parallel excitation approaches developed for scanless two-photon photostimulation enable high-SNR two-photon voltage imaging. We use whole-cell patch-clamp electrophysiology to perform a thorough characterization of scanless two-photon voltage imaging using three parallel illumination approaches and lasers with different repetition rates and wavelengths. We demonstrate voltage recordings of high-frequency spike trains and sub-threshold depolarizations from neurons expressing the soma-targeted genetically encoded voltage indicator JEDI-2P-Kv. Using a low repetition-rate laser, we perform multi-cell recordings from up to fifteen targets simultaneously. We co-express JEDI-2P-Kv and the channelrhodopsin ChroME-ST and capitalize on their overlapping two-photon absorption spectra to simultaneously evoke and image action potentials using a single laser source. We also demonstrate in vivo scanless two-photon imaging of multiple cells simultaneously up to 250 µm deep in the barrel cortex of head-fixed, anaesthetised mice.

A transient postnatal quiescent period precedes emergence of mature cortical dynamics.

Mature neural networks synchronize and integrate spatiotemporal activity patterns to support cognition. Emergence of these activity patterns and functions is believed to be developmentally regulated, but the postnatal time course for neural networks to perform complex computations remains unknown. We investigate the progression of large-scale synaptic and cellular activity patterns across development using high spatiotemporal resolution in vivo electrophysiology in immature mice. We reveal that mature cortical processes emerge rapidly and simultaneously after a discrete but volatile transition period at the beginning of the second postnatal week of rodent development. The transition is characterized by relative neural quiescence, after which spatially distributed, temporally precise, and internally organized activity occurs. We demonstrate a similar developmental trajectory in humans, suggesting an evolutionarily conserved mechanism that could facilitate a transition in network operation. We hypothesize that this transient quiescent period is a requisite for the subsequent emergence of coordinated cortical networks.

It can take several months, or even years, for the brain of a young animal to develop and refine the complex neural networks which underpin cognitive abilities such as memory, planning, and decision making. While the properties that support these functions have been well-documented, less is known about how they emerge during development. Domínguez, Ma, Yu et al. therefore set out to determine when exactly these properties began to take shape in mice, using lightweight nets of electrodes to record brain activity in sleeping newborn pups. The nets were designed to avoid disturbing the animals or damaging their fragile brains. The recordings showed that patterns of brain activity similar to those seen in adults emerged during the first couple of weeks after birth. Just before, however, the brains of the pups went through a brief period of reduced activity: this lull seemed to mark a transition from an immature to a more mature mode of operation. After this pause, neurons in the mouse brains showed coordinated patterns of firing reminiscent of those seen in adults. By monitoring the brains of human babies using scalp sensors, Domínguez, Ma, Yu et al. showed that a similar transition also occurs in infants during their first few months of life, suggesting that brains may mature via a process retained across species. Overall, the relative lull in activity before transition may mark when neural networks gain mature properties; in the future, it could therefore potentially be used to diagnose and monitor individuals with delayed cognitive development.

Reduced GABAergic Neuron Excitability, Altered Synaptic Connectivity, and Seizures in a KCNT1 Gain-of-Function Mouse Model of Childhood Epilepsy.

Gain-of-function (GOF) variants in K+ channels cause severe childhood epilepsies, but there are no mechanisms to explain how increased K+ currents lead to network hyperexcitability. Here, we introduce a human Na+-activated K+ (KNa) channel variant (KCNT1-Y796H) into mice and, using a multiplatform approach, find motor cortex hyperexcitability and early-onset seizures, phenotypes strikingly similar to those of human patients. Although the variant increases KNa currents in cortical excitatory and inhibitory neurons, there is an increase in the KNa current across subthreshold voltages only in inhibitory neurons, particularly in those with non-fast-spiking properties, resulting in inhibitory-neuron-specific impairments in excitability and action potential (AP) generation. We further observe evidence of synaptic rewiring, including increases in homotypic synaptic connectivity, accompanied by network hyperexcitability and hypersynchronicity. These findings support inhibitory-neuron-specific mechanisms in mediating the epileptogenic effects of KCNT1 channel GOF, offering cell-type-specific currents and effects as promising targets for therapeutic intervention.

Maturation of PNN and ErbB4 Signaling in Area CA2 during Adolescence Underlies the Emergence of PV Interneuron Plasticity and Social Memory.

Adolescence is a vulnerable period characterized by major cognitive changes. The mechanisms underlying the emergence of new cognitive functions are poorly understood. We find that a long-term depression of inhibitory transmission (iLTD) from parvalbumin-expressing (PV+) interneurons in the hippocampal area Cornu Ammonis 2 (CA2) is absent in young mice but emerges at the end of adolescence. We demonstrate that the maturation of both the perineuronal net (PNN) and signaling through ErbB4 is required for this plasticity. Furthermore, we demonstrate that social recognition memory displays the same age dependence as iLTD and is impaired by targeted degradation of the PNN or iLTD blockade in area CA2. Our data reveal an unusual developmental rule for plasticity at the PV+ interneuron transmission in area CA2 and indicate that this plasticity is involved in the emergence of higher cognitive function, such as social memory formation, in late adolescence.

Temperature Rise under Two-Photon Optogenetic Brain Stimulation.

In recent decades, optogenetics has been transforming neuroscience research, enabling neuroscientists to drive and read neural circuits. The recent development in illumination approaches combined with two-photon (2P) excitation, either sequential or parallel, has opened the route for brain circuit manipulation with single-cell resolution and millisecond temporal precision. Yet, the high excitation power required for multi-target photostimulation, especially under 2P illumination, raises questions about the induced local heating inside samples. Here, we present and experimentally validate a theoretical model that makes it possible to simulate 3D light propagation and heat diffusion in optically scattering samples at high spatial and temporal resolution under the illumination configurations most commonly used to perform 2P optogenetics: single- and multi-spot holographic illumination and spiral laser scanning. By investigating the effects of photostimulation repetition rate, spot spacing, and illumination dependence of heat diffusion, we found conditions that make it possible to design a multi-target 2P optogenetics experiment with minimal sample heating.

Acetylcholine Facilitates a Depolarization-Induced Enhancement of Inhibition in Rat CA1 Pyramidal Neurons.

Cholinergic mechanisms in the hippocampus regulate forms of synaptic plasticity linked with cognition and spatial navigation, but the underlying mechanisms remain largely unknown. Here, in rat hippocampal CA1 pyramidal cells under blockade of ionotropic glutamate receptors, we report that a single acetylcholine pulse and repeated depolarization activated a robust and enduring postsynaptic depolarization-induced enhancement of inhibition (DEI) that masked a presynaptic depolarization-induced suppression of inhibition (DSI). Increased cytosolic Ca2+ and M1-muscarinic receptor activation caused the rise in voltage-sensitive α5ßγ2-containing γ-aminobutyric acid type-A receptors that generated DEI. In summary, this muscarinic-mediated activity-dependent plasticity rapidly transfers depolarization effects on inhibition from presynaptic suppression or DSI to postsynaptic enhancement or DEI, a change potentially relevant in behavior.

Muscarinic Long-Term Enhancement of Tonic and Phasic GABAA Inhibition in Rat CA1 Pyramidal Neurons.

Acetylcholine (ACh) regulates network operation in the hippocampus by controlling excitation and inhibition in rat CA1 pyramidal neurons (PCs), the latter through gamma-aminobutyric acid type-A receptors (GABA A Rs). Although, the enhancing effects of ACh on GABA A Rs have been reported (Dominguez et al., 2014, 2015), its role in regulating tonic GABAA inhibition has not been explored in depth. Therefore, we aimed at determining the effects of the activation of ACh receptors on responses mediated by synaptic and extrasynaptic GABAARs. Here, we show that under blockade of ionotropic glutamate receptors ACh, acting through muscarinic type 1 receptors, paired with post-synaptic depolarization induced a long-term enhancement of tonic GABA A currents ( t GABA A ) and puff-evoked GABA A currents ( p GABAA). ACh combined with depolarization also potentiated IPSCs (i.e., phasic inhibition) in the same PCs, without signs of interactions of synaptic responses with p GABAA and t GABAA, suggesting the contribution of two different GABAA receptor pools. The long-term enhancement of GABAA currents and IPSCs reduced the excitability of PCs, possibly regulating plasticity and learning in behaving animals.

Postsynaptic activity reverses the sign of the acetylcholine-induced long-term plasticity of GABAA inhibition.

Acetylcholine (ACh) regulates forms of plasticity that control cognitive functions but the underlying mechanisms remain largely unknown. ACh controls the intrinsic excitability, as well as the synaptic excitation and inhibition of CA1 hippocampal pyramidal cells (PCs), cells known to participate in circuits involved in cognition and spatial navigation. However, how ACh regulates inhibition in function of postsynaptic activity has not been well studied. Here we show that in rat PCs, a brief pulse of ACh or a brief stimulation of cholinergic septal fibers combined with repeated depolarization induces strong long-term enhancement of GABAA inhibition (GABAA-LTP). Indeed, this enhanced inhibition is due to the increased activation of α5ßγ2 subunit-containing GABAA receptors by the GABA released. GABAA-LTP requires the activation of M1-muscarinic receptors and an increase in cytosolic Ca(2+). In the absence of PC depolarization ACh triggered a presynaptic depolarization-induced suppression of inhibition (DSI), revealing that postsynaptic activity gates the effects of ACh from presynaptic DSI to postsynaptic LTP. These results provide key insights into mechanisms potentially linked with cognitive functions, spatial navigation, and the homeostatic control of abnormal hyperexcitable states.

In vivo spectrophotometric evaluation of pure enamel and enamel-dentine complex in relationship with different age groups.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this in vivo study was to investigate the influence of age on optical properties of pure enamel and enamel-dentine complex. METHODS: A spectrophotometric study was performed on two different age groups: young (10-35 years old) and adult (36-60 years old). In both groups, the tooth's total area of the upper right central incisor was recorded. Areas of 2mm thick pure enamel and 3mm enamel-dentine complex were detected and their L a b and CR evaluated. RESULTS: For 2mm pure enamel medians in the young group were L 74.8, a 3.1, b 15.1, against white background; and L 65.5, a 0.9, b 10.3 against black background. The correspondent opacity was 75%. In the adult group medians were L 70.0, a 4.1, b 15.4 against white background; and L 61.2, a 1.6, b 9.6, against black background. The correspondent opacity was 75%. For 3mm enamel-dentine complex medians in the young group were L 77.8, a 3.0, b 19.8 against white background; and L 74.2, a 1.1, b 15.9, against black background. The correspondent opacity was 89%. In the adult group medians were L 73.4, a 4.0, b 18.5 against white background; and L 71.0, a 2.0, and b 15.3 against black background. The correspondent opacity was 90%. DISCUSSION: The application of this method on a larger group of subjects of different ages may serve as a database for a more exact characterization of optical properties of natural enamel and dentine. CONCLUSIONS: L values in enamel, as well as a* value of 3mm thick enamel-dentine complex and 2mm pure enamel were significantly higher in the young age group. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: L and a values of enamel over white and black backgrounds were statistically different within the 2 age groups considered. L values over white background and a values over black background of the enamel dentine complex seem to change with age. The opacity (CR) for enamel nor for enamel dentine complex does not change within the two age groups considered in this study.

Cholinergic-mediated response enhancement in barrel cortex layer V pyramidal neurons.

Neocortical cholinergic activity plays a fundamental role in sensory processing and cognitive functions, but the underlying cellular mechanisms are largely unknown. We analyzed the effects of acetylcholine (ACh) on synaptic transmission and cell excitability in rat "barrel cortex" layer V (L5) pyramidal neurons in vitro. ACh through nicotinic and M1 muscarinic receptors enhanced excitatory postsynaptic currents and through nicotinic and M2 muscarinic receptors reduced inhibitory postsynaptic currents. These effects increased excitability and contributed to the generation of Ca(2+) spikes and bursts of action potentials (APs) when inputs in basal dendrites were stimulated. Ca(2+) spikes were mediated by activation of NMDA receptors (NMDARs) and L-type voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels. Additionally, we demonstrate in vivo that basal forebrain stimulation induced an atropine-sensitive increase of L5 AP responses evoked by vibrissa deflection, an effect mainly due to the enhancement of an NMDAR component. Therefore, ACh modified the excitatory/inhibitory balance and switched L5 pyramidal neurons to a bursting mode that caused a potent and sustained response enhancement with possible fundamental consequences for the function of the barrel cortex.

Reference curve of bone ultrasound measurements in proximal phalanges in normal Spanish women.

There are clear discrepancies in how the different measurements of phalangeal bone ultrasound, such as the amplitude-dependent speed of bone ultrasound (Ad-SoS), correlate with age, given their dependence on gonadal status and other anthropometric variables. In order to contribute to clarifying these discrepancies, we evaluated the phalangeal Ad-SoS in healthy women-295 postmenopausal, 59 perimenopausal, and 270 premenopausal. Phalanges (II-V) of the nondominant hand were measured and the mean Ad-SoS was computed. There were significant differences between groups (p < 0.0001 in all cases), with the perimenopausal group presenting the intermediate values. For the overall group of women, the Ad-SoS was significantly and negatively correlated with age, weight, and body mass index (BMI), and positively correlated with height (p < 0.0001 in all cases). By gonadal status group, the premenopausal women showed the three significant negative correlations of Ad-SoS with age, weight, and BMI (each, p < 0.0001), the perimenopausal group only with BMI (p < 0.007), and the postmenopausal group with age and BMI (p < 0.0061 to p < 0.0001) and also with years since menopause (p < 0.0001). The premenopausal decline in AD-SoS requires further longitudinal studies, although in our experience it may depend on dietary habits and/or a diminished quality, though not quantity, of bone in this period of a woman's fertile life.

Cuando el valor rompe el silencio: Cronica del primer aborto legal en Bolivia

CONTENIDO: 1.Cronica del primer aborto legal en Bolivia