Onset and progression of drug use in the general population of Catalonia, Spain. / Inicio y progresión en el consumo de sustancias en la población general de Cataluña, España.

The aim of the present study was to retrospectively study the onset and progression sequence of the most frequent pathways of drug use initiation in a sample of the Spanish general population. Data come from the 2011 household survey on drug use in Catalonia, Spain, on non-institutionalized individuals aged 15-64 in the general population. The final sample was of 2,069 individuals and had the same age distribution as the general population. Progressions of drug initiation were pictured by quantifying transitions from a previous state in terms of the number of individuals and weighted percentages. Survival analyses were employed to assess the most prevalent pathways found in the descriptive analysis using additive regression models. Median ages of onset were decreasing in every cohort from 1965 to 1985-1996: from 17 to 15 in tobacco, 20 to 16 in cannabis and 21 to 18 in cocaine. In people who consumed the three drugs studied, the most frequent pathway was "tobacco-daily tobacco-cannabis-cocaine". These results demand health policies and prevention strategies in order to increase perception of the risks of legal and illegal substances. This, together with well-designed peer interventions could reduce the risk of exposure to illegal drugs such as cannabis and cocaine, thus reducing the likelihood of future problem drug use.

Este estudio tuvo como finalidad realizar un análisis retrospectivo de la secuencia de inicio y progresión de las vías más comunes del inicio del consumo de sustancias en una muestra de la población general española. Recopilamos datos de la encuesta nacional de las viviendas del año 2011 sobre el consumo de sustancias en Cataluña, España, respecto de personas no-institucionalizadas de la población general con edades entre los 15-64 años. La muestra final estaba compuesta de 2.069 personas con la misma distribución de edad que la población general. Mostramos la progresión en el inicio de consumo de sustancias mediante la cuantificación de los cambios de un estado anterior, en términos de número de personas y porcentajes ponderados. Aplicamos análisis de supervivencia para valorar las vías más prevalentes halladas en el análisis descriptivo usando modelos de regresión aditivos. La edad media de inicio de consumo fue decreciendo en todas las cohortes desde 1965 hasta 1985-1996: de 17 a 15 para tabaco, de 20 a 16 para cannabis y de 21 a 18 para cocaína. En las personas que usaban las tres sustancias estudiadas, la vía más frecuente fue "tabaco-uso diario de tabaco-cannabis-cocaína". Dichos resultados requieren políticas de salud y estrategias de prevención para aumentar la percepción de los riesgos de las sustancias legales e ilegales. Esto, unido a intervenciones de compañeros bien diseñadas, podría reducir el riesgo de exposición de sustancias ilegales, como cannabis y cocaína, y, por tanto, reducir la probabilidad de un problema de consumo de sustancias en un futuro.

Violence among illicit drug users recruited in drug treatment facilities. / Violencia en consumidores de drogas ilícitas reclutados en centros específicos de tratamiento.

Illicit drug use is known to be associated with injuries resulting from violence. This study aims to estimate the prevalence of violence, for the last 12 months, in illicit drug users and study the victim-offender overlap, separately by sex. Persons using illicit drugs (502) were recruited in drug treatment facilities. Violence was assessed using four questions for victim and one for perpetrator in the last 12 months. Associations between violence and socio-demographic, substance use, crime and illegal drug market aspects were examined with Poisson regression models. Victimization was reported by 49.6% men and 54.7% women; offending by 36.5% and 27.6%, respectively. Higher prevalence ratios of both victim and offender were observed among participants with marginal income generation activities and alcohol risk use. Victimization was more likely in women using parenteral route and among men with early illegal drug use, illegal polydrug use or history of imprisonment. Offending was more likely among men reporting psychological treatment, early illegal drug use, illegal polydrug use or past imprisonment, and women reporting early illegal drug use or trafficking. Thus, a high prevalence of violence (both victimization and perpetration) was found in illicit drug users, especially among those involved in market activities and crime. Drug treatment facilities should consider assessing for history and signs of violence and promote community health strategies.

El uso ilícito de drogas se ha asociado a lesiones producidas por violencia. Nuestro objetivo es estimar en usuarios de drogas ilícitas, la prevalencia de violencia en los últimos 12 meses y estudiar la superposición víctima-agresor. Se reclutaron personas consumidoras de drogas ilícitas (502) en centros de tratamiento de drogas. La violencia se evaluó mediante cuatro preguntas sobre victimización y una sobre agresión referidas a los últimos 12 meses. Las asociaciones entre violencia y aspectos sociodemográficos, consumo de sustancias, delincuencia y mercado de drogas ilegales se analizaron con modelos de regresión de Poisson. El 49,6% de los hombres y el 54,7% de las mujeres reportaron victimización; la agresión un 36,5% y 27,6%, respectivamente. Se observaron prevalencias elevadas de víctima y de ofensor entre los participantes con actividades marginales de generación de ingresos y con uso de riesgo de alcohol. La victimización fue más probable en las mujeres que usaban vía parenteral y entre los hombres con consumo precoz de drogas ilegales, policonsumo de drogas ilegales y antecedentes penitenciarios. La agresión fue más probable entre los hombres receptores de tratamiento psicológico, consumo precoz de drogas ilegales, policonsumo de drogas ilegales y antecedentes penitenciarios, y entre las mujeres, aquellas que reportaron consumo precoz de drogas ilegales y que habían traficado. Se encontró una alta prevalencia de violencia en los usuarios de drogas ilícitas, especialmente entre aquellos involucrados en actividades de mercado y delincuencia. Los centros de tratamiento de drogas deberían considerar evaluar los antecedentes y los signos de violencia, y promover estrategias de salud comunitaria.

Differences in mortality in a cohort of cocaine use disorder patients with concurrent alcohol or opiates disorder.

AIMS: To study mortality in a cohort of cocaine use disorder patients, and compare results in those with concurrent alcohol or opiates disorder. DESIGN, SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: A cohort of 10 539 cocaine use disorder individuals entering drug treatment in public out-patient centres in the city of Barcelona was followed from 1997 to 2011. Participants were divided at baseline into three groups: those with only cocaine use disorder (CUD), those with cocaine and alcohol use disorder but not opioid (CAUD) and those with cocaine and opioid use disorder (COUD). Mortality was assessed through the Spanish National Mortality Register. MEASUREMENTS: Crude mortality rates (CMR), standardized mortality ratios (SMR) and rate ratios (RR) were calculated for each group. A multivariable Cox regression model was fitted to obtain adjusted mortality hazard ratios (aHR) of CAUD and COUD with respect to CUD. Specific mortality causes were also examined. FINDINGS: The total of 716 deaths registered resulted in a CMR = 6.0/1000 person-years (PY); 95% confidence interval (CI) = 5.1-7.0 for CUD, CMR = 5.8/1000 PY (95% CI = 4.9-6.7) for CAUD and CMR = 20.7/1000 PY (95% CI = 18.8-22.8) for COUD, with no significant differences among sexes. Compared with the general population, mortality was four times higher (SMR = 4.1, 95% CI = 3.5-4.8) among CUD, more than three times among CAUD (SMR = 3.4, 95% CI = 2.9-3.9) and more than 10 times among COUD (SMR = 11.6, 95% CI = 10.5-12.8), being always higher in women. External injuries, led by overdose, accumulated the biggest percentage of deaths among the three groups, but infectious diseases showed the highest excess mortality. Some differences regarding causes of death were observed between the three groups. CONCLUSIONS: Mortality risk and excess mortality are significantly greater among those with cocaine and opiates use disorder than among people with only cocaine use disorder or cocaine and alcohol use disorder.

Data from roadside screening for psychoactive substances, alcohol and illicit drugs, among Spanish drivers in 2015.

The data presented in this article are related to the paper "Prevalence of psychoactive substances, alcohol and illicit drugs, in Spanish drivers: A roadside study in 2015". (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2017.07.005) Domingo-(Salvany et al., 2017) [1]. In that paper it was not possible to directly compare 2015 results with previous editions for various reasons, one of which was the lack of a similar weighting procedure. The present paper provides 2015 figures of roadside screening tests which are weighted for traffic flow intensity and therefore allow direct comparisons with the screening tests conducted among Spanish drivers in 2008 and 2013.

Directly alcohol-attributable mortality by industry and occupation in a Spanish Census cohort of economically active population.

AIMS: To assess disparities in directly alcohol-attributable (DAA) mortality by industry/occupation in Spain during 2002-2011 and the contribution of different socio-demographic factors, including socioeconomic position, to explain such disparity. METHODS: Nationwide cohort study covering 16 million economically active people living in Spain in 2001. Deaths at age 25-64 were analyzed. Subjects were classified by employment status, industry and occupation at baseline. Poisson regression models were built, calculating rate ratios (RRs) compared to all employees or those in the education sector. RESULTS: DAA mortality was much higher in the unemployed than in employees (Crude RR: 2.4; 95% CI: 2.3-2.6) and varied widely across industries/occupations. Crude RRs>3.0 (p<0.05) compared to teachers were found in employees in extractive industries/fishing, agriculture/livestock, construction, catering/accommodation and protective services. Socio-demographic factors, especially age, gender and educational attainment contributed more to explain risk disparities than other factors or potential selection bias. However, after exhaustive sociodemographic adjustment, including education attainment and material wealth, a RR>1.33 (p<0.05) remained in unemployed, catering/accommodation employees and unskilled construction workers. RRs were significantly larger in women than men (p<0.05) among mineworkers/fishworkers/sailors (RR=8.6 vs. 1.2) and drivers (RR=3.7 vs. 1.0). CONCLUSIONS: The results could be extrapolated to all alcohol-attributable mortality since disparities for other strongly alcohol-related deaths, although smaller, were in the same direction. Given the wide occupational disparities in alcohol-attributable mortality, implementation of special measures to reduce this mortality in the highest risk groups is fully justified. Future research should better characterize the explanatory factors of disparities and their role in the causal chain.

Prevalence of psychoactive substances, alcohol and illicit drugs, in Spanish drivers: A roadside study in 2015.

A survey was conducted during 2015 to monitor psychoactive substance use in a sample of drivers in Spanish roads and cities. Traffic police officers recruited drivers at sites carefully chosen to achieve representativeness of the driver population. A brief questionnaire included the date, time, and personal and driving patterns data. Alcohol use was ascertained through ethanol breath test at the roadside and considered positive if concentrations >0.05mg alcohol/L were detected. Four drug classes were assessed on-site through an oral fluid screening test that, if positive, was confirmed through a second oral fluid sample at a reference laboratory. Laboratory confirmation analyses screened for 26 psychoactive substances. To evaluate the association between drug findings and age, sex, road type (urban/interurban), and period of the week (weekdays, weeknights, weekend days, weekend nights), logistic regression analyses were done (overall, and separately for alcohol, cannabis and cocaine). A total of 2744 drivers, mean age of 37.5 years, 77.8% men, were included. Overall, 11.6% of the drivers had at least one positive finding to the substances assessed. Substances more frequently testing positive were cannabis (7.5%), cocaine (4.7%) and alcohol (2.6%). More than one substance was detected in 4% of the subjects. The proportion of positive results decreased with age, and was more likely among men and on urban roads. The pattern for alcohol use was similar but did not change with age and increased among drivers recruited at night. Cannabis was more likely to be detected at younger ages and cocaine was associated with night driving. Alcohol use before driving has decreased over the last decade; however, the consumption of other illegal drugs seems to have increased. The pattern of illegal psychoactive substance observed is similar to that declared in surveys of the general population of adults.

Suicidal behaviours in male and female users of illicit drugs recruited in drug treatment facilities / Conductas suicidas en hombres y mujeres consumidores de sustancias ilícitas reclutados en centros de tratamiento para la drogodependenci

Objective: We assessed prevalence of suicidal ideation and plans among illicit drug users and their association with contextual factors, by gender. Methods: Cross-sectional study. In a sample of 511 illicit drug users recruited during spring 2012 in drug treatment and prevention facilities in Catalonia (Spain), the prevalence of suicidal ideation/plans in the last 12 months was assessed. Poisson regression was used to examine associations between suicidal ideation/plans and various factors (socio-demographic, psychological, illegal drug market activities and marginal income generation activities, which included any reported sex work, stealing, peddling, begging or borrowing on credit from a dealer). Results: The average age was 37.9 years (standard deviation: 8.62); 76.3% were men. Suicidal ideation/plans were reported by 30.8% of men and 38.8% of women, with no significant differences by age or gender. Recent aggression (male prevalence ratio [PR]=2.2; female PR=1.4), psychological treatment (male PR=1.2; female PR=1.3) and illegal/marginal income generation activities (male PR=1.5; female PR=1.1) were associated with suicidal ideation/plans. Men who trafficked were more likely to have suicidal ideation/plans (PR=1.3), while prison history was positive for women (PR=1.8) and negative for men (PR=0.7). Conclusions: Prevalence of suicidal ideation/plans was high among illicit drug users recruited from healthcare facilities. Besides psychological variables, participation in illegal market activities and crime ought to be considered in drug users’ suicidal prevention. Suicide risk needs to be evaluated in drug treatment facilities and psychological status and context contemplated (AU)

Objetivo: Se evaluó la prevalencia de ideación y de planes suicidas entre los/las consumidores/as de drogas ilícitas y su asociación con factores contextuales, por sexo. Métodos: Estudio transversal. En una muestra de 511 consumidores/as de drogas ilícitas, reclutados/as durante la primavera de 2012 en centros de tratamiento y preventivos de Cataluña, se evaluó la presencia de ideación o plan suicida en los últimos 12 meses. Se utilizó una regresión de Poisson para examinar las asociaciones entre la ideación o el plan suicida y diversos factores (sociodemográficos, psicológicos, mercado de drogas y actividades marginales de generación de ingresos, considerándose trabajo sexual, robo, venta ambulante, mendicidad o endeudamiento con un traficante). Resultados: La edad media fue de 37,9 años (desviación estándar: 8,62). El 76,3% eran hombres. El 30,8% de los hombres y el 38,8% de las mujeres reportaron ideación o plan suicida, sin diferencias significativas por sexo y edad. La agresión reciente (razón de prevalencia [PR] hombres=2,2, PR mujeres=1,4), el tratamiento psicológico (PR hombres=1,2, PR mujeres=1,3) y las actividades ilegales o marginales de generación de ingresos (PR hombres=1,5, PR mujeres=1,1) se asociaron a la ideación o plan suicida. Los hombres que traficaban eran más propensos a tener ideación o plan suicida (PR=1,3), mientras que la prisión lo fue positivamente para las mujeres (RP=1,8) y negativamente para los hombres (PR=0,7). Discusión: La prevalencia de ideación o plan suicida fue alta entre los/las consumidores/as de drogas ilícitas reclutados/as en centros sanitarios. El estado psicológico, la participación en actividades de mercado y el crimen deben considerarse especialmente para la prevención del suicidio. El riesgo de suicidio debe ser evaluado en los centros de tratamiento de drogas, contemplando el estado psicológico y el contexto (AU)

Dual diagnosis: an European perspective. / Patología dual: una perspectiva europea.

Editorial of vol 29-1.

Editorial del vol 29-1.

Suicidal behaviours in male and female users of illicit drugs recruited in drug treatment facilities.

OBJECTIVE: We assessed prevalence of suicidal ideation and plans among illicit drug users and their association with contextual factors, by gender. METHODS: Cross-sectional study. In a sample of 511 illicit drug users recruited during spring 2012 in drug treatment and prevention facilities in Catalonia (Spain), the prevalence of suicidal ideation/plans in the last 12 months was assessed. Poisson regression was used to examine associations between suicidal ideation/plans and various factors (socio-demographic, psychological, illegal drug market activities and marginal income generation activities, which included any reported sex work, stealing, peddling, begging or borrowing on credit from a dealer). RESULTS: The average age was 37.9 years (standard deviation: 8.62); 76.3% were men. Suicidal ideation/plans were reported by 30.8% of men and 38.8% of women, with no significant differences by age or gender. Recent aggression (male prevalence ratio [PR]=2.2; female PR=1.4), psychological treatment (male PR=1.2; female PR=1.3) and illegal/marginal income generation activities (male PR=1.5; female PR=1.1) were associated with suicidal ideation/plans. Men who trafficked were more likely to have suicidal ideation/plans (PR=1.3), while prison history was positive for women (PR=1.8) and negative for men (PR=0.7). CONCLUSIONS: Prevalence of suicidal ideation/plans was high among illicit drug users recruited from healthcare facilities. Besides psychological variables, participation in illegal market activities and crime ought to be considered in drug users' suicidal prevention. Suicide risk needs to be evaluated in drug treatment facilities and psychological status and context contemplated.

Patología dual: una perspectiva europea / Dual diagnosis: an European perspective

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[Monitoring social determinants of health]. / La vigilancia de los determinantes sociales de la salud.

Public health surveillance is the systematic and continuous collection, analysis, dissemination and interpretation of health-related data for planning, implementation and evaluation of public health initiatives. Apart from the health system, social determinants of health include the circumstances in which people are born, grow up, live, work and age, and they go a long way to explaining health inequalities. A surveillance system of the social determinants of health requires a comprehensive and social overview of health. This paper analyses the importance of monitoring social determinants of health and health inequalities, and describes some relevant aspects concerning the implementation of surveillance during the data collection, compilation and analysis phases, as well as dissemination of information and evaluation of the surveillance system. It is important to have indicators from sources designed for this purpose, such as continuous records or periodic surveys, explicitly describing its limitations and strengths. The results should be published periodically in a communicative format that both enhances the public's ability to understand the problems that affect them, whilst at the same time empowering the population, with the ultimate goal of guiding health-related initiatives at different levels of intervention.

Gender differences in the use of alcohol and prescription drugs in relation to job insecurity. Testing a model of mediating factors.

BACKGROUND: The results of several studies suggest that economy-related stressors are less distressing for women compared with men. This study proposed to examine the relationship of perceived job insecurity with the use of licit drugs using a theoretical model that considered antecedents and mediators of this association, in order to identify differences between working men and women. METHODS: Using information from the Catalan Health Survey (2010-2014), we selected working individuals aged 16-64 who were primary providers of household income (N=5315). The outcomes were two measures of alcohol consumption (heavy drinking and binge drinking) and the use of hypnotics/sedatives. As antecedents of the exposure to job insecurity we considered the type of contractual relationship and occupational class. The mediating factors were poor mental health, household structure and the hours of housework per week. The theoretical model was assessed using path analysis where the moderating effect of gender was considered in all the associations. RESULTS: No differences in the prevalence of job insecurity were found between men and women (17%). Job insecurity (Odds ratio [OR]=1.35, 95% confidence interval [CI]=1.23-1.48) and house workload (OR=1.01, 95% CI=1.00-1.02) were positively associated with poor mental health, with no significant interactions with gender. Poor mental health was significantly associated with binge drinking (OR=1.23, 95% CI=1.13-1.33) and with the use of hypnotics/sedatives (OR=1.71, 95% CI=1.53-1.91). House workload showed a direct negative association with binge drinking (OR=0.99, 95% CI=0.98-1.00), while those in households with no children were more likely to be binge drinkers, with no significant interactions with gender. An alternative model had better fitting results for heavy drinking. CONCLUSION: No gender differences were found in the association of job insecurity with mental health nor with the use of substances among primary providers of household income, emphasising the importance of social roles when assessing differences in mental health among men and women.

Crystals and tablets in the Spanish ecstasy market 2000-2014: Are they the same or different in terms of purity and adulteration?

BACKGROUND: Although 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) has a long history in recreational settings, research on its composition (purity and adulteration) has focused only on tablets even though crystal format is readily available for users. METHODS: Drug specimens collected between January 2000 and December 2014 were analyzed at Energy Control's facilities. All samples were voluntarily provided by drug users. Sample identification was made with thin layer chromatography and gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry, and quantification with ultraviolet spectrophotometry (only in unadulterated samples). RESULTS: Between January 2000 and December 2014, 6200 samples purchased as ecstasy by their users were analyzed. Crystals were the most frequent format (60.6%) followed by tablets (38.8%). During the study period, the proportion of samples containing only MDMA was higher in crystals than in tablets. Compared with tablets, adulterated crystal samples contained the same number of adulterants but more combinations of different substances. Although caffeine was commonly detected as adulterant both in crystals and tablets, other substances such as phenacetin, lidocaine, dextrometorphan or methamphetamine were detected almost exclusively in crystal samples. The amount of MDMA in crystal samples remained stable unlike tablets for which a huge increase in MDMA dose was observed since 2010. CONCLUSION: Crystal samples of ecstasy showed clear differences compared to ecstasy tablets and this must be taken into account both in research and harm reduction.

Cross sectional study of factors associated to self-reported blood-borne infections among drug users.

BACKGROUND: The study's aim was to estimate the self-reported prevalence of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and Hepatitis C Virus (HCV), and to describe their associated risk factors in a population of users of illicit drugs recruited in Catalonia- Spain, during 2012. METHODS: Cross-sectional study. People with illicit drugs use were selected in three different types of healthcare centres. The questionnaire was a piloted, structured ad hoc instrument. An analysis was made to identify factors associated to self-reported HCV, HIV and co-infection. Correlates of reported infections were determined using univariate and multivariate Poisson regression (with robust variance). RESULTS: Among 512 participants, 39.65% self-reported positive serostatus for HCV and 14.84% for HIV, co-infection was reported by 13.48%. Among the 224 injecting drug users (IDUs), 187 (83.48%), 68 (30.36%) and 66 (29.46%) reported being positive for HCV, HIV and co-infection, respectively. A higher proportion of HIV-infected cases was observed among women, (18.33% vs. 13.78% in men). Prevalence of HCV, HIV and co-infection were higher among participants with early onset of drug consumption, long periods of drug injection or who were unemployed. A positive serostatus was self-reported by 21(7.34%) participants who did not report any injection; among them 16 and eight, reported being positive for HCV and HIV, respectively; three reported co-infection. Only two people declared exchanging sex for money. For those that reported a negative test, the median time since the last HIV test was 11.41 months (inter-quartile range (IQR) 4-12) and for the HCV test was 4.5 months (IQR 2-7). CONCLUSIONS: Among drug users in Catalonia, HIV, HCV and co-infection prevalence are still a big issue especially among IDUs. Women and drug users who have never injected drugs are groups with a significant risk of infection; this might be related to their high-risk behaviours and to being unaware of their serological status.

Estimating trends in the prevalence of problematic cocaine use (1999-2008) / Estimación de la tendencia de la prevalencia del consumo problemático de cocaína (1999-2008)

Objective: To examine trends in the prevalence of problematic cocaine use in a large city and describe the problems encountered when estimating these trends using capture-recapture techniques based on secondary data Methods: We used clinical data on accident and emergency department episodes at four university hospitals in Barcelona (Spain) between 1999 and 2008 (3 capture periods per year). Users were categorized into two subgroups depending on concomitant heroin use (cocaine plus heroin, cocaine without heroin). Results: The mean age of users was 34 years and 25% were women (2008). The mean number of episodes per user differed between drug subgroups and over time. The estimated total number of cocaine users increased from 6,028 (95% confidence interval [95%CI]: 4,086-9,327) in 1999 to 22,640 (95%CI: 14,001-37,500) in 2006, but decreased thereafter. The prevalence of problematic use of cocaine plus heroin was stable throughout the study. Thus, trends in the prevalence of problematic cocaine use differed depending on concomitant heroin use. Conclusion: Our results are consistent with those provided by health surveys and treatment registries. They also highlight the pitfalls of applying the capture-recapture approach to secondary data, and the need for a better understanding of how information is collected and changes over time (AU)

Objetivo: Explorar la tendencia de la prevalencia del consumo problemático de cocaína en una gran ciudad y describir los problemas encontrados cuando se estiman estas tendencias mediante técnicas de captura-recaptura utilizando datos secundarios. Métodos: Se utilizaron los datos de los servicios de urgencias de cuatro hospitales universitarios de Barcelona entre 1999 y 2008 (tres capturas por año). Las personas se clasificaron en dos subgrupos según el uso concomitante de heroína (cocaína junto con heroína, cocaína sin heroína). Resultados: La edad media fue de 34 años (2008) y el 25% eran mujeres. El número medio de episodios por paciente fue distinto según el subgrupo y el año. La estimación del número total de consumidores/as problemáticos/as de cocaína aumentó de 6028 (intervalo de confianza del 95% [IC95%]: 4086-9327) en 1999 a 22.640 (IC95%: 14.001-37.500) en 2006, y disminuyó a partir de entonces. La prevalencia del consumo problemático de cocaína más heroína se mantuvo estable durante el período. Por lo tanto, las tendencias de prevalencia diferían dependiendo del consumo de heroína concomitante. Conclusión: Los resultados concuerdan con los de las encuestas de salud y con los registros de tratamiento. Los resultados también ponen de relieve ciertos peligros en la aplicación de la captura-recaptura para datos secundarios, y la necesidad de un conocimiento profundo de cómo se recopila la información y los posibles cambios en el tiempo (AU)

Estimating trends in the prevalence of problematic cocaine use (1999-2008).

OBJECTIVE: To examine trends in the prevalence of problematic cocaine use in a large city and describe the problems encountered when estimating these trends using capture-recapture techniques based on secondary data METHODS: We used clinical data on accident and emergency department episodes at four university hospitals in Barcelona (Spain) between 1999 and 2008 (3 capture periods per year). Users were categorized into two subgroups depending on concomitant heroin use (cocaine plus heroin, cocaine without heroin). RESULTS: The mean age of users was 34 years and 25% were women (2008). The mean number of episodes per user differed between drug subgroups and over time. The estimated total number of cocaine users increased from 6,028 (95% confidence interval [95%CI]: 4,086-9,327) in 1999 to 22,640 (95%CI: 14,001-37,500) in 2006, but decreased thereafter. The prevalence of problematic use of cocaine plus heroin was stable throughout the study. Thus, trends in the prevalence of problematic cocaine use differed depending on concomitant heroin use. CONCLUSION: Our results are consistent with those provided by health surveys and treatment registries. They also highlight the pitfalls of applying the capture-recapture approach to secondary data, and the need for a better understanding of how information is collected and changes over time.

Economic crisis and changes in drug use in the Spanish economically active population.

AIMS: To examine changes in the use of alcohol, cannabis and hypnotics/sedatives between two periods (before and during Spain's economic crisis), and to identify differences in the change between employed and unemployed individuals. DESIGN: Using cross-sectional data from four editions of the Spanish Household Survey on Alcohol and Drugs, we selected economically active individuals aged 16-64 years (total sample = 62 440) and defined two periods, pre-crisis [period 1 (P1) = 2005-07] and crisis (P2 = 2009-11). Poisson regression models with robust variance were fitted to obtain prevalence ratios (PR) of heavy and binge drinking and multinomial regression models to obtain relative risk ratios (RRR) of cannabis and hypnotic/sedative use between the two periods, also considering the interaction between period and employment status. FINDINGS: While the prevalence of alcohol use remained stable, heavy drinking declined in P2 in men both overall [PR = 0.73; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.67-0.79] and in the two age groups (16-34 and 35-64 years), and also in women overall (PR = 0.86; 95% CI = 0.75-0.99) and in the older age group. In contrast, binge drinking increased overall in P2 in men (PR = 1.17; 95% CI = 1.12-1.22) and in women (PR = 1.62; 95% CI = 1.49-1.76), and in both age groups. No differences in the change were observed between employed and unemployed individuals. Overall cannabis use remained stable in P2, but unemployed men and women of the older age group were more likely to have increased sporadic use compared to their employed counterparts (RRR = 2.24; 95% CI = 1.36-3.68 and RRR = 3.21; 95% CI = 1.30-7.93, respectively). Hypnotic/sedative use remained stable in P2 in men, but unemployed men were less likely to have increased heavy use in P2 compared with employed men (RRR = 0.69; 95% CI = 0.49-0.97). In women, heavy use increased in P2 overall and in the older age group, irrespective of employment status. CONCLUSION: During a period of economic recession in Spain, heavy drinking decreased and binge drinking increased. Sporadic cannabis use increased among older unemployed men and women. Heavy use of hypnotics/sedatives increased among employed men while older women increased use irrespective of employment status.

Coverage of overdose prevention programs for opiate users and injectors: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: The use of opiates, particularly heroin, remains an important cause of morbidity and mortality. Half of the deaths among heroin consumers are attributed to overdose. In response to this problem, overdose prevention programs (OPPs) were designed. The objective of our study was to assess coverage of OPPs among the target population in a specific Spanish region (Catalonia) and to identify characteristics related to attendance. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey recruited individuals from outpatient treatment centers (OTCs), therapeutic communities (ThCs), and harm reduction facilities (HRFs) in Catalonia. From 513 participants, 306 opiate users and/or injectors were selected for this study. Coverage was calculated as the proportion of subjects who declared having participated in an OPP. A Poisson regression with robust variance was used to assess factors (socio-demographic aspects and psychoactive substance use patterns) associated to OPP participation, taking into account recruitment strategy. RESULTS: Average age of the 306 subjects was 39.7 years (s.d.: 7.7); 79% were male; 79.2% lived in urban areas and 56.3% were unemployed or had never worked. Overall OPP coverage was 43.5% (95% CI: 37%-49%). Training was received mostly in HRF (60%), followed by OTC (24.4%), prison (19%), and ThC (16%). OPP sessions were attended by 41% of Spanish-born study participants and by 63.3% of foreigners; 92.2% of the participants lived in urban areas. The Poisson regression analysis adjusted by age, sex, and type of recruitment center showed that OPP participation rates were higher for individuals with foreign nationality (PR = 1.3; 95% CI: 1.04-1.72), for those living in municipalities with more than 100,000 inhabitants (PR = 2.0; 95% CI: 1.37-2.81) or the Barcelona conurbation (PR = 2.5; 95% CI: 1.68-3.77), and for those having ever been in prison (PR = 1.6; 95% CI: 1.41-1.81) and had first consumption when they were less than 12 years old (PR = 1.2; 95% CI: 1.06-1.45). CONCLUSION: Coverage as a whole can be considered high. However, in Catalonia, new strategies ought to be developed in order to attract opiate users and injectors not currently participating, by expanding OPP offer to services and regions where coverage is poor.

Prevalencia de consumo de hipnosedantes en población ocupada y factores de estrés laboral asociados / Prevalence of the use of hypnotics and sedatives among the working population and associated work-related stress factors

Objetivo. Explorar la prevalencia de consumo de ansiolíticos y somníferos (hipnosedantes) en una muestra de la población ocupada en España y evaluar su asociación con determinados factores de estrés relacionados con el trabajo. Métodos. Con datos de la Encuesta Domiciliaria sobre Alcohol y Drogas en España (EDADES) 2007 se analizó la distribución del consumo de hipnosedantes en el último mes entre la población ocupada de 16 a 64 años de edad (n = 13.005). Mediante regresión logística se examinó su asociación con la exposición a determinados factores de estrés relacionado con el trabajo (entorno de trabajo nocivo o peligroso, precariedad, carga de trabajo y apoyo social). Resultados. La prevalencia de consumo de hipnosedantes en el último mes fue el doble en las mujeres (6,5%) que en los hombres (3,3%). En ambos sexos el consumo se dobló entre los mayores respecto a los más jóvenes (10,2% en mujeres y 5,5% en hombres mayores de 45 años), y se cuadriplicó entre los que reportaron mala salud (18,9% en mujeres y 11% en hombres). Respecto al estrés laboral, se registró una asociación entre consumo de hipnosedantes y los niveles de precariedad moderado (odds ratio [OR]: 1,96; intervalo de confianza del 95% [IC95%]: 1,31-2,92) y alto (OR: 1,95; IC95%: 1,14-3,34) en los hombres, y moderado en las mujeres (OR: 1,43; IC95%: 1,03-1,99). Conclusiones. Se observa una alta prevalencia de consumo de hipnosedantes en mujeres y en mayores de 45 años. Sería necesario profundizar en el estudio de la relación entre el consumo de hipnosedantes y la salud de los trabajadores, y del papel de los factores de estrés laboral en esta relación (AU)

Objective. To explore the prevalence of the use of hypnotics and sedatives in a sample of the Spanish working population and to examine its association with certain work-related stress factors. Methods. Using data from the 2007 Spanish Household Survey on Alcohol and Drugs (Encuesta Domiciliaria sobre Alcohol y Drogas en España [EDADES]), we analyzed the distribution of the use of hypnotics and sedatives in the previous month in the working population aged 16 to 64 years old (n = 13,005). Associations with exposure to certain work-related stress factors (noxious working environment, precariousness, workload, and social support) were examined using logistic regression modelling. Results. The prevalence of the use of hypnotics and sedatives among women in the previous month doubled that of men (6.5% and 3.3%, respectively), while use among the oldest age group was twice that of the youngest group in both sexes (10.2% in women and 5.5% in men older than 45 years), and was four times higher among those reporting poor health (18.9% in women and 11% in men). Concerning work-related stress, exposure to moderate (OR: 1.96; 95%CI: 1.31-2.92) and high (OR: 1.95; 95%CI: 1.14-3.34) levels of precariousness in men and moderate levels in women (OR: 1.43; 95%CI: 1.03-1.99) was associated with the use of hypnotics and sedatives. Conclusions. The prevalence of the use of hypnotics and sedatives was high in women and in workers older than 45 years. Further research is needed on the relationship between the use of hypnotics and sedatives and workers’ health, and on the role that work-related stress factors play in this association (AU)