miR-422a suppresses SMAD4 protein expression and promotes resistance to muscle loss.

BACKGROUND: Loss of muscle mass and strength are important sequelae of chronic disease, but the response of individuals is remarkably variable, suggesting important genetic and epigenetic modulators of muscle homeostasis. Such factors are likely to modify the activity of pathways that regulate wasting, but to date, few such factors have been identified. METHODS: The effect of miR-422a on SMAD4 expression and transforming growth factor (TGF)-ß signalling were determined by western blotting and luciferase assay. miRNA expression was determined by qPCR in plasma and muscle biopsy samples from a cross-sectional study of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and a longitudinal study of patients undergoing aortic surgery, who were subsequently admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU). RESULTS: miR-422a was identified, by a screen, as a microRNA that was present in the plasma of patients with COPD and negatively associated with muscle strength as well as being readily detectable in the muscle of patients. In vitro, miR-422a suppressed SMAD4 expression and inhibited TGF-beta and bone morphogenetic protein-dependent luciferase activity in muscle cells. In male patients with COPD and those undergoing aortic surgery and on the ICU, a model of ICU-associated muscle weakness, quadriceps expression of miR-422a was positively associated with muscle strength (maximal voluntary contraction r = 0.59, P < 0.001 and r = 0.51, P = 0.004, for COPD and aortic surgery, respectively). Furthermore, pre-surgery levels of miR-422a were inversely associated with the amount of muscle that would be lost in the first post-operative week (r = -0.57, P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that differences in miR-422a expression contribute to the susceptibility to muscle wasting associated with chronic and acute disease and that at least part of this activity may be mediated by reduced TGF-beta signalling in skeletal muscle.

Growth differentiation factor-15 is associated with muscle mass in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and promotes muscle wasting in vivo.

BACKGROUND: Loss of muscle mass is a co-morbidity common to a range of chronic diseases including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Several systemic features of COPD including increased inflammatory signalling, oxidative stress, and hypoxia are known to increase the expression of growth differentiation factor-15 (GDF-15), a protein associated with muscle wasting in other diseases. We therefore hypothesized that GDF-15 may contribute to muscle wasting in COPD. METHODS: We determined the expression of GDF-15 in the serum and muscle of patients with COPD and analysed the association of GDF-15 expression with muscle mass and exercise performance. To determine whether GDF-15 had a direct effect on muscle, we also determined the effect of increased GDF-15 expression on the tibialis anterior of mice by electroporation. RESULTS: Growth differentiation factor-15 was increased in the circulation and muscle of COPD patients compared with controls. Circulating GDF-15 was inversely correlated with rectus femoris cross-sectional area (P < 0.001) and exercise capacity (P < 0.001) in two separate cohorts of patients but was not associated with body mass index. GDF-15 levels were associated with 8-oxo-dG in the circulation of patients consistent with a role for oxidative stress in the production of this protein. Local over-expression of GDF-15 in mice caused wasting of the tibialis anterior muscle that expressed it but not in the contralateral muscle suggesting a direct effect of GDF-15 on muscle mass (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Together, the data suggest that GDF-15 contributes to the loss of muscle mass in COPD.

Increased expression of H19/miR-675 is associated with a low fat-free mass index in patients with COPD.

BACKGROUND: Loss of muscle mass and strength is a significant comorbidity in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) that limits their quality of life and has prognostic implications but does not affect everyone equally. To identify mechanisms that may contribute to the susceptibility to a low muscle mass, we investigated microRNA (miRNA) expression, methylation status, and regeneration in quadriceps muscle from COPD patients and the effect of miRNAs on myoblast proliferation in vitro. The relationships of miRNA expression with muscle mass and strength was also determined in a group of healthy older men. METHODS: We identified miRNAs associated with a low fat-free mass (FFM) phenotype in a small group of patients with COPD using a PCR screen of 750 miRNAs. The expression of two differentially expressed miRNAs (miR-675 and miR-519a) was determined in an expanded group of COPD patients and their associations with FFM and strength identified. The association of these miRNAs with FFM and strength was also explored in a group of healthy community-dwelling older men. As the expression of the miRNAs associated with FFM could be regulated by methylation, the relative methylation of the H19 ICR was determined. Furthermore, the proportion of myofibres with centralized nuclei, as a marker of muscle regeneration, in the muscle of COPD patients was identified by immunofluorescence. RESULTS: Imprinted miRNAs (miR-675 and from a cluster, C19MC which includes miR-519a) were differentially expressed in the quadriceps of patients with a low fat-free mass index (FFMI) compared to those with a normal FFMI. In larger cohorts, miR-675 and its host gene (H19) were higher in patients with a low FFMI and strength. The association of miR-519a expression with FFMI was present in male patients with severe COPD. Similar associations of miR expression with lean mass and strength were not observed in healthy community dwelling older men participating in the Hertfordshire Sarcopenia Study. Relative methylation of the H19 ICR was reduced in COPD patients with muscle weakness but was not associated with FFM. In vitro, miR-675 inhibited myoblast proliferation and patients with a low FFMI had fewer centralized nuclei suggesting miR-675 represses regeneration. CONCLUSIONS: The data suggest that increased expression of miR-675/H19 and altered methylation of the H19 imprinting control region are associated with a low FFMI in patients with COPD but not in healthy community dwelling older men suggesting that epigenetic control of this loci may contribute to a susceptibility to a low FFMI.

MiR-181a: a potential biomarker of acute muscle wasting following elective high-risk cardiothoracic surgery.

INTRODUCTION: Acute muscle wasting in the critically ill is common and associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Although some aetiological factors are recognised and muscle wasting can be detected early with ultrasound, it not possible currently to predict in advance of muscle loss those who will develop muscle wasting. The ability to stratify the risk of muscle wasting associated with critical illness prior to it becoming clinically apparent would provide the opportunity to predict prognosis more accurately and to intervene at an early stage. MicroRNAs are small non-coding RNAs that modulate post-transcriptional regulation of translation, some are tissue specific and can be detected and quantified in plasma. We hypothesised that certain plasma microRNAs could be biomarkers of ICU acquired muscle weakness. METHODS: Plasma levels of selected microRNAs were measured in pre- and post-operative samples from a previously reported prospective observational study of 42 patients undergoing elective high-risk cardiothoracic surgery, 55% of whom developed muscle wasting. RESULTS: The rise in miR-181a was significantly higher on the second post-operative day in those who developed muscle wasting at 1 week compared to those who did not (p = 0.03). A rise in miR-181a of greater than 1.7 times baseline had 91% specificity and 56% sensitivity for subsequent muscle wasting. Other microRNAs did not show significant differences between the groups. CONCLUSION: Plasma miR-181a deserves further investigation as a potential biomarker of muscle wasting. Additionally, since mir-181a is involved in both regulation of inflammation and muscle regeneration and differentiation; our observation therefore also suggests directions for future research.

Muscle function in COPD: a complex interplay.

The skeletal muscles play an essential role in life, providing the mechanical basis for respiration and movement. Skeletal muscle dysfunction is prevalent in all stages of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and significantly influences symptoms, functional capacity, health related quality of life, health resource usage and even mortality. Furthermore, in contrast to the lungs, the skeletal muscles are potentially remedial with existing therapy, namely exercise-training. This review summarizes clinical and laboratory observations of the respiratory and peripheral skeletal muscles (in particular the diaphragm and quadriceps), and current understanding of the underlying etiological processes. As further progress is made in the elucidation of the molecular mechanisms of skeletal muscle dysfunction, new pharmacological therapies are likely to emerge to treat this important extra-pulmonary manifestation of COPD.

Encephalitogenic and tolerogenic potential of altered peptide ligands of MOG and PLP in Biozzi ABH mice.

Altered peptide ligands (APL) are highly effective in inhibiting experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) in rodents although clinical trials in multiple sclerosis reveal severe limitations probably due to the diverse and differential effects of APL in vivo compared to in vitro. Myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG 8-21) induces relapsing EAE in ABH (A(g7)) mice associated with broadening of the autoimmune repertoire thus providing a dynamic system to examine the efficacy of peptide analogues. Subtle changes in MOG 8-21 dramatically influenced disease susceptibility and T cell responses in vitro. Non-encephalitogenic APL that induce production of the 'regulatory' cytokines IL-10 and/or TGFbeta and concomitant low levels of the 'proinflammatory' cytokines IFNgamma and TNFalpha modulated relapsing EAE but were far less effective than the 'proinflammatory' wild-type MOG 8-21 peptide. These data reveal that APL differ greatly in their ability to activate encephalitogenic T cells. The extensive heterogeneity of responses of APL in vitro suggests that selection of APL on this criteria is highly unpredictable and probably less effective for therapy than selecting the dominant wild-type epitope and delivering it using a tolerogenic route.