Pregnancy complications and childhood mental health: is the association modified by sex or adverse social circumstances? Findings from the 'growing up in Ireland' national infant cohort study.

Specific pregnancy complications, socioeconomic position and sex have all been independently associated with child mental health outcomes, but their combined effects remain unclear. We examined whether total number of complications experienced in the pregnancy associated with mental health at 5 and 9-years, and whether this varied by sex or adverse social circumstances. Pregnancy complications were self-reported at 9-months post-natally from a list of 16 complications. Parents completed the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) when their child was 5 and 9-years. The primary outcome was the SDQ-total and scoring in the clinical range (> 16) was a secondary outcome. We applied generalized linear mixed models to a large nationally representative Irish cohort (GUI; n = 11,134). Analyses were adjusted for sex, adverse social circumstances (at 9-months), and gestational smoking. We included an interaction term between pregnancy complications and each variable respectively in separate models to examine if associations varied by sex or adverse circumstances.After controlling for covariates, total complications associated with mental health at 5 and 9-years. Each additional pregnancy complication conferred a 10% higher total-SDQ score (exponentiated co-efficient 1.10 [95%CI 1.06-1.14], 1.20 [1.15-1.26], 1.20 [1.12-1.29] and 1.34 [1.21-1.48] for 1, 2, 3 and 4 + complications respectively). For the dichotomised outcome, generally increasing odds for clinical levels of mental health difficulties were observed (OR 1complication = 1.89, 95%CI [1.37-2.59]; OR 2complications = 2.31, 95%CI [1.53-3.50]; OR 3complications = 1.77, 95%CI [0.89-3.52]; OR 4 + complications = 6.88, 95%CI [3.29-14.40]). Females had significantly lower odds of exhibiting clinically significant mental health difficulties than males (OR = 0.43, 95%CI[0.32-0.57]).There was no evidence that the association between pregnancy complications and child's mental health varied by sex or social circumstances at 5 or 9-years. Males exposed to numerous pregnancy complications in the context of adverse social circumstances had the highest predicted probability of having mental health difficulties in middle childhood.

Examining the association between prenatal and perinatal adversity and the psychotic experiences in childhood.

BACKGROUND: Prenatal and perinatal complications are established risk factors for psychotic disorder, but far less is known about these measures and psychotic experiences (PEs). We investigated the longitudinal effect of prenatal risk factors (maternal behavior, medication complications) and perinatal risk factors (birth weight, medical complications) on frequency of PEs. We also examined the cumulative risk of prenatal/perinatal risk factors, and differences between transient PE, persistent PE, and controls. METHODS: The Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development study is a large child cohort (age 9-10 at baseline; n = 11 872 with PE data). PEs were measured longitudinally using the Prodromal Questionnaire-Brief, Child version, and included only if reported as distressing. Mixed-effects models were used for analysis, controlling for random effects, and a substantial number of fixed-effects covariates. RESULTS: Urinary tract infection (ß = 0.11, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.03-0.19) and severe anemia (ß = 0.18, 95% CI 0.07-0.29) increased frequency of distressing PEs in childhood. Number of prenatal complications increased frequency of PEs (ß = 0.03, 95% CI 0.01-0.06) and risk of persistent PEs (odds ratio [OR] = 1.08, 95% CI 1.01-1.15). Maternal smoking was associated with an increased frequency of PEs (ß = 0.11, 95% CI 0.04-0.18) and persistent PEs (OR = 1.31, 95% CI 1.04-1.66). Maternal substance use was a risk factor for a 48% increased risk of persistent PEs (OR = 1.48, 95% CI 1.08-2.01). Perinatal complications showed no effect on PEs. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides evidence that certain prenatal medical complications (severe nausea, severe anemia), cumulative number of prenatal medical complications, and maternal behaviors (smoking during pregnancy), increased frequency of distressing PEs in childhood. Maternal smoking and substance use, as well as cumulative number of prenatal complications increased risk of persistent PEs.

Longitudinal hippocampal subfield development associated with psychotic experiences in young people.

Hippocampal volumetric reductions are observed across the psychosis spectrum, with interest in the localisation of these reductions within the hippocampal subfields increasing. Deficits of the CA1 subfield in particular have been implicated in the neuropathophysiology of psychotic disorders. Investigating the trajectory of these abnormalities in healthy adolescents reporting sub-threshold psychotic experiences (PE) can provide insight into the neural mechanisms underlying psychotic symptoms without the potentially confounding effects of a formal disorder, or antipsychotic medication. In this novel investigation, a sample of 211 young people aged 11-13 participated initially in the Adolescent Brain Development study. PE classification was determined by expert consensus at each timepoint. Participants underwent neuroimaging at 3 timepoints, over 6 years. 78 participants with at least one scan were included in the final sample; 33 who met criteria for a definite PE at least once across all the timepoints (PE group), and 45 controls. Data from bilateral subfields of interest (CA1, CA2/3, CA4/DG, presubiculum and subiculum) were extracted for Linear Mixed Effects analyses. Before correction, subfield volumes were found to increase in the control group and decrease in the PE group for the right CA2 and CA2/3 subfields, with moderate to large effect sizes (d = -0.61, and d = -0.79, respectively). Before correction, right subiculum and left presubiculum volumes were reduced in the PE group compared to controls, regardless of time, with moderate effect sizes (d = -0.52, and d = -0.59, respectively). However, none of these effects survived correction. Severity of symptoms were not associated with any of the noted subfields. These findings provide novel insight to the discussion of the role of hippocampal subfield abnormalities in the pathophysiology underlying psychotic experiences.

Functional Outcomes Among Young People With Trajectories of Persistent Childhood Psychopathology.

Importance: Understanding which children in the general population are at greatest risk of poor functional outcomes could improve early screening and intervention strategies. Objective: To investigate the odds of poor outcomes in emerging adulthood (ages 17 to 20 years) for children with different mental health trajectories at ages 9 to 13 years. Design, Setting, and Participants: Growing Up in Ireland is a longitudinal, nationally representative population-based cohort study. Data collection began in August 2007 and was repeated most recently in September 2018. All results were weighted to account for sampling bias and attrition and were adjusted for socioeconomic factors. Data analysis took place from October 2022 to April 2023. Exposure: Four latent classes captured variation in mental health in children aged 9 and 13 years, based on the parent-completed Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Classes included no psychopathology, internalizing, externalizing, and high (comorbid) psychopathology. Those who remained in the same class from ages 9 to 13 years were included. Main Outcomes and Measures: Poor functional outcomes in emerging adulthood were measured at approximate ages 17 years (range, 16 to 18 years) and 20 years (range, 19 to 21 years). Outcomes included poor mental health, poor physical health, social isolation, heavy substance use, frequent health service use, poor subjective well-being, and adverse educational/economic outcomes. Results: Of 5141 included participants, 2618 (50.9%) were male. A total of 3726 (72.5%) were classed as having no childhood psychopathology, 1025 (19.9%) as having persistent externalizing psychopathology, 243 (4.7%) as having persistent internalizing psychopathology, and 147 (2.9%) as having persistent high psychopathology. Having any childhood psychopathology was associated with poorer functional outcomes in emerging adulthood. The internalizing group had elevated odds of most outcomes except for heavy substance use (range of odds ratios [ORs]: 1.38 [95% CI, 1.05-1.81] for frequent health service use to 3.08 [95% CI, 2.33-4.08] for poor mental health). The externalizing group had significantly elevated odds of all outcomes, albeit with relatively small effect sizes (range of ORs: 1.38 [95% CI, 1.19-1.60] for frequent health service use to 1.98 [95% CI, 1.67-2.35] for adverse educational/economic outcomes). The high psychopathology group had elevated odds of all outcomes (nonsignificantly for frequent health service use), though with wide confidence intervals (range of ORs: 1.53 [95% CI, 1.06-2.21] for poor physical health to 2.91 [95% CI, 2.05-4.12] for poor mental health). Female participants with any psychopathology had significantly higher odds of poor physical health and frequent health service use compared with male participants with any psychopathology. Conclusions and Relevance: In this longitudinal cohort study, childhood psychopathology was associated with a widespread pattern of functional impairment in emerging adulthood. Findings point to the need for a wider range of preventive interventions in child and adolescent mental health services.

Longitudinal Gray Matter Development Associated With Psychotic Experiences in Young People.

Background: Gray matter abnormalities are observed across the psychosis spectrum. The trajectory of these abnormalities in healthy adolescents reporting subthreshold psychotic experiences (PEs) may provide insight into the neural mechanisms underlying psychotic symptoms. The risk of psychosis and additional psychopathology is even higher among these individuals who also report childhood adversity/DSM-5 diagnoses. Thus, the aims of this longitudinal study were to investigate PE-related volumetric changes in young people, noting any effects of childhood adversity/DSM-5 diagnosis. Methods: A total of 211 young people 11 to 13 years of age participated in the initial Adolescent Brain Development study. PE classification was determined by expert consensus at each time point. Participants underwent neuroimaging at 3 time points over 6 years. A total of 76 participants with at least one scan were included in the final sample; 34 who met criteria for PEs at least once across all the time points (PE group) and 42 control subjects. Data from 20 bilateral regions of interest were extracted for linear mixed-effects analyses. Results: Right hippocampal volume increased over time in the control group, with no increase in the PE group (p = .00352). DSM-5 diagnosis and childhood adversity were not significantly associated with right hippocampal volume. There was no significant effect of group or interaction in any other region. Conclusions: These findings further implicate right hippocampal volumetric abnormalities in the pathophysiology underlying PEs. Furthermore, as suggested by previous studies in those at clinical high risk for psychosis and those with first-episode psychosis, it is possible that these deficits may be a marker for later clinical outcomes.

Predicting childhood ADHD-linked symptoms from prenatal and perinatal data in the ABCD cohort.

This study investigates the capacity of pre/perinatal factors to predict attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms in childhood. It also explores whether predictive accuracy of a pre/perinatal model varies for different groups in the population. We used the ABCD (Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development) cohort from the United States (N = 9975). Pre/perinatal information and the Child Behavior Checklist were reported by the parent when the child was aged 9-10. Forty variables which are generally known by birth were input as potential predictors including maternal substance-use, obstetric complications and child demographics. Elastic net regression with 5-fold validation was performed, and subsequently stratified by sex, race/ethnicity, household income and parental psychopathology. Seventeen pre/perinatal variables were identified as robust predictors of ADHD symptoms in this cohort. The model explained just 8.13% of the variance in ADHD symptoms on average (95% CI = 5.6%-11.5%). Predictive accuracy of the model varied significantly by subgroup, particularly across income groups, and several pre/perinatal factors appeared to be sex-specific. Results suggest we may be able to predict childhood ADHD symptoms with modest accuracy from birth. This study needs to be replicated using prospectively measured pre/perinatal data.

Explaining the Association Between Fetal Growth and Childhood ADHD Symptoms: Cross-cohort Replication.

The association between restricted fetal growth and symptoms of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in childhood is well-replicated and robust. However, fetal growth is determined by many prenatal factors and associations with mental health may be confounded by familial and social context. In this study, we sought to quantify the relative contributions of prenatal factors and familial confounds to the association between fetal growth and ADHD symptoms. Two independent cohorts were analyzed, the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development study (ABCD; United States) and the Growing Up in Ireland (GUI) study. ADHD symptoms were measured by the Child Behavior Checklist (ABCD) and the Strengths & Difficulties questionnaire (GUI) at age 9-10. Using sequential regression models, we assessed the change-in-association between fetal growth and ADHD symptoms after controlling for sex, familial factors (socioeconomic/demographic factors & family psychiatric history) and prenatal factors (pregnancy complications & maternal substance-use during pregnancy). Converging findings from cohorts suggested that over a quarter of the association between fetal growth and ADHD symptoms is attributable to familial confounds. The degree to which the association was explained by prenatal factors differed by cohort-pregnancy complications explained a larger proportion of the effect in ABCD (7.9%) than GUI (2.7%), and maternal substance-use explained a larger proportion of the effect in GUI (22.7%) compared to ABCD (4.8%). Different explanations of the fetal growth-ADHD association across cohorts suggests cohort-specific, and potentially nationally-specific, risk factors for fetal growth and related neurodevelopmental outcomes. The evidence suggests early prevention of ADHD in Ireland should focus on minimizing maternal smoking during pregnancy. In the US, prevention and treatment of pregnancy complications are highlighted as viable targets for intervention.

The persistent effects of foetal growth on child and adolescent mental health: longitudinal evidence from a large population-based cohort.

Low birth weight for one's gestational age is associated with higher rates of child psychopathology, however, most studies assess psychopathology cross-sectionally. The effect of such foetal growth restriction appears to be strongest for attention problems in childhood, although adult studies have found associations with a range of outcomes, from depression to psychosis. We explore how associations between foetal growth and psychopathology change across age, and whether they vary by sex. We used a large nationally representative cohort of children from Ireland (N ~ 8000). Parents completed the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) at 3 time points (age 9, 13 and 17). Outcomes included a total problems scale and subscales measuring attention/hyperactivity, peer, conduct and emotional problems. Foetal growth had significant associations with all problem scales, even after controlling for sex, socioeconomic factors and parental mental health. The magnitude of these effects was small but relatively stable across ages 9-17. In males, foetal growth had the strongest associations with attention/hyperactivity and peer problems, whereas females showed more widespread associations with all four subscales. There was a trend for the association between foetal growth and emotional problems to increase with advancing age, approaching the borderline-abnormal threshold by age 17. Reduced foetal growth predicted persistently higher scores on all measured aspects of child and adolescent psychopathology. Associations with child attention/hyperactivity may generalize to a wider array of adult psychopathologies via adolescent-onset emotional problems. Future studies should explore potential age-dependent effects of foetal growth into the early 20s.

Person-Centered Trajectories of Psychopathology From Early Childhood to Late Adolescence.

Importance: The understanding of the development of psychopathology has been hampered by a reliance on cross-sectional data and symptom- or disorder-centered methods. Person-centered methods can accommodate both the problems of comorbidity and the movement between different psychopathological states at different phases of development. Objective: To examine the profiles and map the trajectories of psychopathology from early childhood to late adolescence. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cohort study used 2 longitudinal nationally representative community-based cohorts from the Growing Up in Ireland study covering developmental periods from early childhood to late adolescence. Data in this investigation came from children and their families who participated in all waves of cohorts recruited in 2008 (children ages 3, 5, and 9 years) and 1998 (adolescents ages 9, 13, and 17 or 18 years). Both samples were weighted to account for representation and attrition. Latent transition analyses were used to map the trajectories of psychopathology. Data were analyzed between October 2020 and September 2021. Main Outcomes and Measures: Psychopathology was measured using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire at all ages in both samples. Results: A total of 13 546 individuals were included in the analyses. In the child cohort, mean (SD) age was 3.0 [0.01] years; 3852 (51.3%) were male participants. In the adolescent cohort, mean age was 9.0 (0.1) years; 3082 (51.0%) were male participants. Four profiles were identified in both cohorts that could be broadly labeled as no psychopathology (incidence range, 60%-70%), high psychopathology (incidence range, 3%-5%), externalizing problems (incidence range, 15%-25%), and internalizing problems (incidence range, 7%-12%). Transition between the profiles was common in both cohorts, with 3649 of 7507 participants (48.6%) in the child cohort and 2661 of 6039 participants (44.1%) in the adolescent cohort moving into 1 of the 3 psychopathology profiles at some point in development. Transition to the high psychopathology profile was most often preceded by externalizing problems. Approximately 3% to 4% of the sample had persistent psychopathology (child cohort, 203 participants [2.7%]; adolescent cohort, 216 participants [3.6%]). All psychopathology profiles were more common in boys in early life but, by late adolescence, girls were more likely to have internalizing problems. In a cross-cohort comparison at age 9, there were differences in the sex distributions of the profiles between the samples. Conclusions and Relevance: Using person-centered methods, this study demonstrated that from early life young peoples' experience of psychopathology is dynamic-they can move between different mental health problems; for most children, these problems are transient, but a small proportion (fewer than 5%) have persistent difficulties. In the context of finite resources, optimizing care requires the early identification of those with persistent phenomena.

Neuroanatomical markers of psychotic experiences in adolescents: A machine-learning approach in a longitudinal population-based sample.

It is important to identify accurate markers of psychiatric illness to aid early prediction of disease course. Subclinical psychotic experiences (PEs) are important risk factors for later mental ill-health and suicidal behaviour. This study used machine learning to investigate neuroanatomical markers of PEs in early and later stages of adolescence. Machine learning using logistic regression using Elastic Net regularization was applied to T1-weighted and diffusion MRI data to classify adolescents with subclinical psychotic experiences vs. controls across 3 timepoints (Time 1:11-13 years, n = 77; Time 2:14-16 years, n = 56; Time 3:18-20 years, n = 40). Neuroimaging data classified adolescents aged 11-13 years with current PEs vs. controls returning an AROC of 0.62, significantly better than a null model, p = 1.73e-29. Neuroimaging data also classified those with PEs at 18-20 years (AROC = 0.59;P = 7.19e-10) but performance was at chance level at 14-16 years (AROC = 0.50). Left hemisphere frontal regions were top discriminant classifiers for 11-13 years-old adolescents with PEs, particularly pars opercularis. Those with future PEs at 18-20 years-old were best distinguished from controls based on left frontal regions, right-hemisphere medial lemniscus, cingulum bundle, precuneus and genu of the corpus callosum (CC). Deviations from normal adolescent brain development in young people with PEs included an acceleration in the typical pattern of reduction in left frontal thickness and right parietal curvature, and accelerated progression of microstructural changes in right white matter and corpus callosum. These results emphasise the importance of multi-modal analysis for understanding adolescent PEs and provide important new insights into early phenotypes for psychotic experiences.

Birth Weight and Childhood Psychopathology in the ABCD Cohort: Association is Strongest for Attention Problems and is Moderated by Sex.

Many studies have shown low birth weight is associated with psychopathology later in life, particularly attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The association is well-replicated, independent from a variety of potential familial confounds, and follows a dose-response curve (decreasing birth weight linked with increasing odds of disorder). However, the specificity of the association to attention problems is called into question by the extent of comorbidity in ADHD, and recent findings that the association is stronger for autism than ADHD. We test the relative dose-response strength of birth weight on multiple aspects of behavior to explore specificity of the effect to attention problems. We also test recent suggestions that the association between birth weight and attention problems is driven by males. Our sample consisted of 9,076 children aged 9-10 from the United States (Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development study). Outcomes included 9 problem-scales and the total problems scale from the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). Attention problems were the most strongly associated with birth weight after controlling for gestational age, potential familial confounds, and multiple testing, supporting the outcome-specificity of this association. Contrary to recent registry-based findings, an association between birth weight and an autism scale was not observed. Sex moderated the effect of birth weight on total problems, attention problems and aggressive behavior such that these inverse associations were strongly driven by males. Our findings have strong implications for sex-specific prediction and etiological models of childhood psychopathology.

Is there an association between prenatal testosterone and autistic traits in adolescents?

Prenatal testosterone (pT) is a crucial component in physiological masculinization in humans. In line with the Prenatal Sex Steroid Theory of autism, some studies have found a positive correlation between pT and autistic traits in childhood. However, effects in adolescence have not been explored. Hormonal and environmental changes occurring during puberty may alter the strength or the nature of prenatal effects on autistic traits. The current study examines if pT relates to autistic traits in a non-clinical sample of adolescents and young adults (N = 97, 170 observations; age 13-21 years old). It also explores pT interactions with pubertal stage and timing. PT concentrations were measured from amniotic fluid extracted in the 2nd trimester of gestation via amniocentesis conducted for clinical purposes. Autistic traits were measured by self- and parent-reports on the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) which provides a total score and 5 sub-scores (social skills, communication, imagination, attention switching and attention to detail). Self-reported pubertal stage was regressed on age to provide a measure of relative timing. We found no statistical evidence for a direct association between pT and autistic traits in this adolescent sample (males, females or full sample). Exploratory analyses suggested that pT correlated positively with autistic traits in adolescents with earlier puberty-onset, but statistical robustness of this finding was limited. Further exploratory post-hoc tests suggested the pT-by-pubertal timing interaction was stronger in males relative to females, in self-reported compared to parent-reported AQ and specifically for social traits. These findings require replication in larger samples. Findings have implications for understanding the effects of pT on human behavior, specifically existence of effects in adolescence.

Early adult mental health, functional and neuropsychological outcomes of young people who have reported psychotic experiences: a 10-year longitudinal study.

BACKGROUND: Psychotic experiences (PE) are highly prevalent in childhood and are known to be associated with co-morbid mental health disorders and functional difficulties in adolescence. However, little is known about the long-term outcomes of young people who report PE. METHODS: As part of the Adolescent Brain Development Study, 211 young people were recruited in childhood (mean age 11.7 years) and underwent detailed clinical interviews, with 25% reporting PE. A 10 year follow-up study was completed and 103 participants returned (mean age 20.9 years). Structured clinical interviews for DSM-5 (SCID-5) and interviewer-rated assessments of functioning were conducted. A detailed neuropsychological battery was also administered. Analyses investigated group differences between those who had ever reported PE and controls in early adulthood. RESULTS: The PE group was at a significantly higher risk of meeting DSM-5 criteria for a current (OR 4.08, CI 1.16-14.29, p = 0.03) and lifetime psychiatric disorder (OR 3.27, CI 1.43-7.47, p = 0.005). They were also at a significantly higher risk of multi-morbid lifetime psychiatric disorders. Significantly lower scores on current social and global functioning measures were observed for the PE group. Overall, there were no differences in neuropsychological performance between groups apart from significantly lower scores on the Stroop Word task and the Purdue Pegboard task for the PE group. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that reports of PE are associated with poorer mental health and functional outcomes in early adulthood, with some persisting cognitive and motor deficits. Young people who report such symptoms could be considered a target group for interventions to aid functional outcomes.

Multiple Network Dysconnectivity in Adolescents with Psychotic Experiences: A Longitudinal Population-Based Study.

Abnormal functional connectivity (FC, the temporal synchronization of activation across distinct brain regions) of the default mode (DMN), salience (SN), central executive (CEN), and motor (MN) networks is well established in psychosis. However, little is known about FC in individuals, particularly adolescents, reporting subthreshold psychotic experiences (PE) and their trajectory over time. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the FC of these networks in adolescents with PE. In this population-based case-control study, 24 adolescents (mean age = 13.58) meeting the criteria for PE were drawn from a sample of 211 young people recruited and scanned for a neuroimaging study, with a follow-up scan 2 years later (n = 18, mean age = 15.78) and compared to matched controls drawn from the same sample. We compared FC of DMN, SN, CEN, and MN regions between PE and controls using whole-brain FC analyses. At both timepoints, the PE group displayed significant hypoconnectivity compared to controls. At baseline, FC in the PE group was decreased between MN and DMN regions. At follow-up, dysconnectivity in the PE group was more widespread. Over time, controls displayed greater FC changes than the PE group, with FC generally increasing between MN, DMN, and SN regions. Adolescents with PE exhibit hypoconnectivity across several functional networks also found to be hypoconnected in established psychosis. Our findings highlight the potential for studies of adolescents reporting PE to reveal early neural correlates of psychosis and support further investigation of the role of the MN in PE and psychotic disorders.

Differences in unity: The go/no-go and stop signal tasks rely on different mechanisms.

Response inhibition refers to the suppression of prepared or initiated actions. Typically, the go/no-go task (GNGT) or the stop signal task (SST) are used interchangeably to capture individual differences in response inhibition. On the one hand, factor analytic and conjunction neuroimaging studies support the association of both tasks with a single inhibition construct. On the other hand, studies that directly compare the two tasks indicate distinct mechanisms, corresponding to action restraint and cancellation in the GNGT and SST, respectively. We addressed these contradictory findings with the aim to identify the core differences in the temporal dynamics of the functional networks that are recruited in both tasks. We extracted the time-courses of sensory, motor, attentional, and cognitive control networks by group independent component (G-ICA) analysis of electroencephalography (EEG) data from both tasks. Additionally, electromyography (EMG) from the responding effector muscles was recorded to detect the timing of response inhibition. The results indicated that inhibitory performance in the GNGT may be comparable to response selection mechanisms, reaching peripheral muscles at around 316 â€‹ms. In contrast, inhibitory performance in the SST is achieved via biasing of the sensorimotor system in preparation for stopping, followed by fast sensory, motor and frontal integration during outright stopping. Inhibition can be detected at the peripheral level at 140 â€‹ms after stop stimulus presentation. The GNGT and the SST therefore seem to recruit widely different neural dynamics, implying that the interchangeable use of superficially similar inhibition tasks in both basic and clinical research is unwarranted.

Psychotic experiences in childhood are associated with increased structural integrity of the left arcuate fasciculus - A population-based case-control study.

Around 1 in 5 children under 13 years old experience sub-clinical psychotic experiences (PEs) like hallucinations and delusions. While PEs in childhood are a significant risk factor for adult psychotic disorders, the majority of those experiencing childhood PEs do not develop a psychotic disorder. Individual differences in regional brain maturation rates may be responsible for this age-related and often transient emergence of PEs. Fronto-temporal association tracts undergo extensive maturation and myelination throughout childhood and adolescence, thus we focus on individual differences in one such tract, the arcuate fasciculus. A normative population-based sample of children (aged 11-13) attended a clinical interview and MRI (n = 100), 25 of whom were identified as reporting strong PEs. This group had reduced mean and radial diffusivity in the arcuate fasciculus compared with a group of matched controls (n = 25) who reported no PEs. The group difference was greater in the left hemisphere than the right. Mediation analyses showed that this group difference was driven predominantly by perceptual disturbances and an along-tract analysis showed that the group difference was greatest approximately halfway between the frontal and temporal termination points of the tract (adjacent to the left lateral ventricle). This study is the first to investigate links between arcuate fasciculus diffusivity and psychotic experiences in a population sample of children.

Childhood and adolescent psychotic experiences and risk of mental disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Psychotic experiences (PEs) are common in childhood and adolescence and their association with mental disorders is well-established. We aim to conduct a quantitative synthesis the literature on the relationship between childhood and adolescent PEs and (i) any mental disorder; and (ii) specific categories of mental disorder, while stratifying by study design. METHOD: Three electronic databases (PUBMED, PsycINFO and EMBASE) were searched from inception to August 2017 for all the published literature on childhood and adolescent PEs and mental disorder (outcome) in non-help-seeking community samples. Study quality was assessed using a recognised quality assessment tool for observational studies. Two authors conducted independent data extraction. Pooled odds ratios were calculated for mental disorders using random-effects models. Additional analyses were conducted investigating different categories of mental disorder while stratifying by study design. RESULTS: Fourteen studies from 13 community samples (n = 29 517) were identified with 9.8% of participants reporting PEs. PEs were associated with a three-fold increased risk of any mental disorder [odds ratio (OR) 3.08, confidence interval (CI) 2.26-4.21, k = 12]. PEs were associated with four-fold increase risk of psychotic disorder (OR 3.96, CI 2.03-7.73, population-attributable-fraction: 23.2%, k = 5). In addition, PEs were associated with an increased risk of affective disorders, anxiety disorders, behavioural disorders and substance-use disorders. Few longitudinal studies have investigated childhood and adolescent PEs and subsequent non-psychotic disorders which limited a meaningful synthesis and interpretation of these results. CONCLUSION: This meta-analysis confirms that PEs are prevalent in childhood and adolescent community samples and are associated with a variety of mental disorders beyond psychotic disorders. Further longitudinal research is necessary to fully determine the longitudinal relationship between PEs and non-psychotic disorders.

Fine motor skill and processing speed deficits in young people with psychotic experiences: A longitudinal study.

OBJECTIVE: To identify neuropsychological and motor changes from adolescence to early adulthood in young people with psychotic experiences (PE). METHODS: A community-based sample of 56 young people attended the study over a 9 year follow-up period. Participants were assessed over 3 time-points at T1, T2 and T3 aged x¯â€¯= 11.69, x¯â€¯= 15.80 and x¯â€¯= 18.80 years respectively. PE were assessed using the Kiddie Schedule for Affective and Depressive Symptoms (K-SADS). Neuropsychological assessments, including subtests of the MATRICS battery, and motor assessments were examined at T2 and T3. Two groups were compared: those who ever reported PE during their adolescence or early adulthood (n = 21) and a healthy control group (n = 35). Further group analysis was conducted within the PE group subdividing into those with transient PE (n = 10) and those with persistent PE (n = 11). RESULTS: At T3, a significant group difference was found between the PE and control groups in the fine motor skill task, the Pegboard task (F = 4.8, p = .03) and the processing speed task, the Digit-Symbol Coding task (F = 5.36, p = .03). Furthermore, a significant group difference was found between the transient PE and control groups on the Digit-Symbol Coding task (F = 5.61, p = .02), while a significant group difference was found between the persistent PE and control groups on the Pegboard task (F = 7.84, p = .01). CONCLUSION: This study shows that fine motor skill and processing speed deficits persist in young people who report PE, even in those with transient PE. The current research advances the knowledge about the trajectory and precursors of sub-clinical symptoms of psychosis in young people.