High frequency of CYP2D6 ultrarapid metabolizer genotypes in an Ashkenazi Jewish population from Argentina.

A twofold higher frequency of CYP2D6 ultrarapid metabolizers (estimated from genotype: gUMs) was reported among Ashkenazi Jews (AJ) living in New York (USA) than in other North American Caucasians, which might be important to guide the prescription for CYP2D6 substrates in AJ communities around the world. This study was aimed to determine whether the high frequency of CYP2D6 gUMs described in AJ from USA was replicated in AJ from Argentina when compared with other multiethnic admixture Argentines (GA). The frequency of the most common allelic variants and of CYP2D6 gUMs (>2 active genes) and poor metabolizers (0 active genes, gPMs) was also compared among the studied Argentine populations. CYP2D6 genotyping was performed in 173 AJ and 246 GA DNA samples of unrelated donors from the metropolitan area of Buenos Aires. CYP2D6 alleles (*2, *3, *4, *5, *6, *10, *17, *35, *41 and multiple copies), genotypes and functional phenotype frequencies were determined. The frequencies of gUMs and gPMs in AJ from Argentina were 11.5% and 5.2%, respectively, whereas in GA, the frequencies of gUM and gPMs were 6.5% and 4.9%, respectively. Comparisons between AJ and GA showed that gUMs frequencies were twofold higher (P<0.05) in AJ than GA. CYP2D6*35 allele was more frequent in GA than AJ, whereas CYP2D6*41 and *1xN were more frequent in AJ than in GA (P<0.05). This study supports the previously reported high frequency of gUMs on another Ashkenazi population in New York. The present findings also support the interethnic variability of CYP2D6 genetic polymorphism in the overall Argentine population.

CYP2C9, CYP2C19, ABCB1 genetic polymorphisms and phenytoin plasma concentrations in Mexican-Mestizo patients with epilepsy.

We aimed to explore the possible influence of CYP2C9 (*2, *3 and IVS8-109 A>T), CYP2C19 (*2, *3 and *17) and ABCB1 (1236C>T, 2677G>A/T and 3435C>T) on phenytoin (PHT) plasma concentrations in 64 Mexican Mestizo (MM) patients with epilepsy currently treated with PHT in mono- (n=25) and polytherapy (n=39). Genotype and allele frequencies of these variants were also estimated in 300 MM healthy volunteers. Linear regression models were used to assess associations between the dependent variables (PHT plasma concentration and dose-corrected PHT concentration) with independent variables (CYP2C9, CYP2C19 and ABCB1 genotypes, ABCB1 haplotypes, age, sex, weight, and polytherapy). In multivariate models, CYP2C9 IVS8-109 T was significantly associated with higher PHT plasma concentrations (t(64)=2.27; P=0.03). Moreover, this allele was more frequent in the supratherapeutic group as compared with the subtherapeutic group (0.13 versus 0.03, respectively; P=0.05, Fisher's exact test). Results suggest that CYP2C9 IVS8-109 T allele may decrease CYP2C9 enzymatic activity on PHT. More research is needed to confirm findings.

Interethnic differences in the relevance of CYP2C9 genotype and environmental factors for diclofenac metabolism in Hispanics from Cuba and Spain.

The aims of this study were to evaluate the diclofenac metabolism in Hispanics from Cuba and Spain and its relation to ethnicity, CYP2C9 genotypes and environmental factors. Diclofenac hydroxylation capacity (concentration ratios of diclofenac/metabolites in 8-h urine) was studied in 160 Cuban (classified as 76 Cuban-Whites-CWs and 84 Cuban-Mestizos-CMs) and 148 Spaniard (SPs) healthy volunteers. Diclofenac and its main metabolites, 4'-hydroxy (OH), 3'-OH and 5-OH diclofenac, and CYP2C9*2 to *6 and *8 alleles were also determined in 132 and 128 CWs and CMs, respectively. Gender, tobacco, caffeine and ethanol consumption were also evaluated. The mean diclofenac/4'-OH diclofenac ratio was higher in CMs (0.72±0.25) than in CWs (0.64±0.20; P<0.05) and SPs (0.57±0.26; P<0.001). The mean diclofenac/4'-OH diclofenac ratio was higher (P<0.05) in subjects with CYP2C9*1/*3 (0.77±0.19; n=22) and CYP2C9*1/*8 (0.93±0.33; n=4) genotypes than with CYP2C9*1/*1 (0.65±0.24; n=90). Environmental factors did not seem to influence the diclofenac metabolism in these populations. The present findings show for the first time interethnic differences between Hispanic groups in urinary diclofenac/4'-OH diclofenac ratios, and the relevance of CYP2C9*3 and CYP2C9*8 alleles.

Influence of admixture components on CYP2C9*2 allele frequency in eight indigenous populations from Northwest Mexico.

We previously documented the lowest frequency of CYP2C9*2 in Mexican indigenous Tepehuanos followed by Mestizos and Mexican-Americans populations, suggesting a negative correlation between the CYP2C9*2 frequency and the degree of Asian ancestry in indigenous Americans. We determined the influence of ethnic admixture components on the CYP2C9 allele distribution in 505 Amerindian from eight indigenous populations through genotyping CYP2C9*2, *3 and *6 alleles by real-time PCR and molecular evaluation of ancestry. The frequencies for CYP2C9*2 were 0.026 in Seris and 0.057 in Mayos, being higher than in Asians (P<0.001). CYP2C9*3 was found in Tarahumaras (0.104), Mayos (0.091), Tepehuanos (0.075), Guarijíos (0.067), Huicholes (0.033) and Coras (0.037), with East Asians having lower frequencies than the former three groups (P<0.001). CYP2C9*6 was not found. The frequency of CYP2C9*2 was lower in Amerindians than in European populations, and higher than their Asian ancestors. The presence of this allele in ethnic groups in Mexico can be explained by European admixture.

Use of pharmacogenetics in bioequivalence studies to reduce sample size: an example with mirtazapine and CYP2D6.

In bioequivalence studies, intra-individual variability (CV(w)) is critical in determining sample size. In particular, highly variable drugs may require enrollment of a greater number of subjects. We hypothesize that a strategy to reduce pharmacokinetic CV(w), and hence sample size and costs, would be to include subjects with decreased metabolic enzyme capacity for the drug under study. Therefore, two mirtazapine studies, two-way, two-period crossover design (n=68) were re-analysed to calculate the total CV(w) and the CV(w)s in three different CYP2D6 genotype groups (0, 1 and ≥ 2 active genes). The results showed that a 29.2 or 15.3% sample size reduction would have been possible if the recruitment had been of individuals carrying just 0 or 0 plus 1 CYP2D6 active genes, due to the lower CV(w). This suggests that there may be a role for pharmacogenetics in the design of bioequivalence studies to reduce sample size and costs, thus introducing a new paradigm for the biopharmaceutical evaluation of drug products.

Neurological toxicity after phenytoin infusion in a pediatric patient with epilepsy: influence of CYP2C9, CYP2C19 and ABCB1 genetic polymorphisms.

Pharmacogenetic studies have shown that genetic defects in drug-metabolizing enzymes encoded by CYP2C9, CYP2C19 genes and by the transporter ABCB1 gene can influence phenytoin (PTH) plasma levels and toxicity. The patient reported here is a 2-year-old girl with a medical history of cryptogenic (probably symptomatic) epilepsy, who had her first focal seizure with secondary generalization at 13 months of age. She initially received oral valproate treatment and three months later, she was prescribed an oral oxcarbazepine treatment. At 20 months of age, she was admitted to the Emergency Department because of generalized convulsive Status Epilepticus needing to be immediately treated with rectal diazepam (0.5 mg kg(-1)), intravenous diazepam (0.3 mg kg(-1)), and intravenous phenytoin with an initial-loading dose of 15 mg kg(-1). However, two hours after the initial-loading dose of PTH, the patient developed dizziness, nystagmus, ataxia and excessive sedation. Other potential causes of PTH toxicity were excluded such as drug interactions, decreased albumin or lab error. Therefore, to explain the neurological toxicity, PTH plasma levels and CYP2C9, CYP2C19 and ABCB1 genetic polymorphisms were analyzed. Initial plasma PTH levels were higher than expected (69 mg l(-1); normal range: 10-20 mg l(-1)), and the patient was homozygous for the CYP2C9*2 allele, heterozygous for the CYP2C19*4 allele and homozygous for the 3435C and 1236C ABCB1 alleles. Present findings support the previously established relationship between CYP2C9 and CYP2C19 genetic polymorphisms and the increased risk to develop PTH toxicity owing to high plasma concentrations. Nevertheless, although the association of these genes with PTH-induced adverse effects has been well-documented in adult populations, this is the first report examining the influence of these genetic polymorphisms on PTH plasma levels and toxicity in a pediatric patient.

Association of common genetic variants with risperidone adverse events in a Spanish schizophrenic population.

Risperidone non-compliance is often high due to undesirable side effects, whose development is in part genetically determined. Studies with genetic variants involved in the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of risperidone have yielded inconsistent results. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the putative association of genetic markers with the occurrence of four frequently observed adverse events secondary to risperidone treatment: sleepiness, weight gain, extrapyramidal symptoms and sexual adverse events. A series of 111 schizophrenia inpatients were genotyped for genetic variants previously associated with or potentially involved in risperidone response. Presence of adverse events was the main variable and potential confounding factors were considered. Allele 16Gly of ADRB2 was significantly associated with a higher risk of sexual adverse events. There were other non-significant trends for DRD3 9Gly and SLC6A4 S alleles. Our results, although preliminary, provide new candidate variants of potential use in risperidone safety prediction.

CYP2D6 genotype and debrisoquine hydroxylation phenotype in Cubans and Nicaraguans.

CYP2D6 genotype and debrisoquine metabolic ratio (MR) were analyzed in 133 Nicaraguan Mestizos (NMs) and 260 Cubans divided into Cuban Mestizos (CMs) and White Cubans (WCs). The frequencies of poor metabolizers (MR12.6) were 6% in NMs, 3.9% in CMs and 5.3% in WCs. The frequencies of ultrarapid metabolizers (MR0.1) were 0% in NMs, 2.3% in CMs and 5.3% in WCs. Mean (±s.d.) MR among extensive metabolizers (MR<12.6) was higher in NMs (1.5±1.6; n=118) than in CMs (1.0±1.3; n=124; P<0.001) and WCs (0.7±1.0; n=124; P<0.001). MR correlated with the 'activity score' of CYP2D6 genotypes (P<0.05; r=-0.55). Mean MR was higher among NMs than WCs and CMs for groups classified as 1 (P<0.05) or 2 (P<0.01) 'activity score'. In addition, mean (±s.d.) MR was higher among subjects carrying CYP2D6*17 than in CYP2D6 wt/wt (P<0.001). The CYP2D6*10 allele was higher in NMs (3.1%) than in CMs (0.8%; P<0.05) and WCs (0.4%; P<0.05). CYP2D6*17 allele was higher in CMs (10.2%) than WC (2.7%; P<0.005) and NMs (0%). Thus, the variability in CYP2D6 phenotypes found may be related to differences in allele frequency among groups (that is, CYP2D6*10 and *17 highest in NMs and CMs, respectively). However, the influence of environmental factors or alleles different than those studied here cannot be ruled out.

CYP2D6 polymorphism in patients with eating disorders.

CYP2D6 polymorphism is associated with variability in drug response, endogenous metabolism (that is, serotonin), personality, neurocognition and psychopathology. The relationship between CYP2D6 genetic polymorphism and the risk of eating disorders (ED) was analyzed in 267 patients with ED and in 285 controls. A difference in the CYP2D6 active allele distribution was found between these groups. Women carrying more than two active genes (ultrarapid metabolizers) (7.5 vs 4.6%) or two (67 vs 58.9%) active genes were more frequent among patients with ED, whereas those with one (20.6 vs 30.2%) or zero active genes (4.9 vs 6.3%) were more frequent among controls (P<0.05). Although further research is needed, present findings suggest an association between CYP2D6 and ED. CYP2D6 allele distribution in patients with ED seems related to increased enzyme activity.

CYP2C9 allele frequency differences between populations of Mexican-Mestizo, Mexican-Tepehuano, and Spaniards.

Earlier we had found that the CYP2C9*2 allelic frequency was lower in Mexican-Americans living in California than in Spaniards (SP). This was assumed to be related to the low CYP2C9*2 and *3 allele frequencies in Orientals. This study was therefore aimed at analyzing whether there were also differences in CYP2C9 allele frequencies between Mexican-Tepehuanos (MT) and Mexican-Mestizos (MM) living in northwestern Mexico and SP. The CYP2C9*2 frequency was expected to be lower in the indigenous MT than in the two other groups, and lower in MM than in SP as in our earlier study. CYP2C9 genotypes and allele frequencies of two populations of healthy volunteers, MT (n=99) and MM (n=102), were compared with a population of SP (n=327). The data were also compared with our previously published population of Mestizo-Mexican-Americans (MA). The CYP2C9 genotypes among the studied populations were in equilibrium. The frequencies of CYP2C9*2 were 0.01, 0.07, 0.08, and 0.16 for MT, MM, MA, and SP subjects, respectively. In agreement with our hypothesis, CYP2C9*2 was significantly lower in the Mexican populations than in the SP (P<0.05), and among Mexicans in the MT than in the MM and MA groups (P<0.05), which presented similar frequencies. Moreover, the frequency of CYP2C9*3 was found to be lower (P<0.05) in MM (0.015) and MT (0.015) than in MA (0.06) and SP (0.08). Finally, the CYP2C9*6 allele was present just in one MM subject, and CYP2C9*4 and *5 were not found in the studied populations. Therefore, these findings add further evidence about CYP2C9 genetic diversity within Hispanic populations with regard to their ancestry. Considering that CYP2C9*2 and CYP2C9*3 alleles have altered catalytic activities relative to CYP2C9*1, the present data suggest the need for pharmacogenetic studies to optimize drug dosages in different populations.

Relationship between CYP2C8 genotypes and diclofenac 5-hydroxylation in healthy Spanish volunteers.

PURPOSE: CYP2C8 seems to be involved in diclofenac 5-hydroxylation, while, in vitro, the 4'-hydroxylation and 3'-hydroxylation seem to be mediated mainly by CYP2C9. We have demonstrated the relevance of CYP2C9 genotypes for diclofenac 4'-hydroxylation in healthy volunteers, so that the present study was aimed at analyzing the role of both CYP2C8 and CYP2C9 genotypes on diclofenac metabolism, as well as determining the CYP2C8 allele frequencies and their relationship with CYP2C9 variants. METHODS: A group of 142 healthy white Spanish volunteers was studied. Previously, 102 of these subjects had been phenotyped with diclofenac and genotyped for CYP2C9. The CYP2C8 genotypes were determined by allele-specific PCR-RFLP methods. The urinary concentrations of diclofenac and its main metabolites were analysed using an HPLC-UV method after the administration of a single oral dose of diclofenac as described previously for part of the population studied here. RESULTS: The diclofenac/5-hydroxydiclofenac urinary concentration ratio was higher in individuals carrying a CYP2C8*3 or CYP2C8*4 allele than in those homozygous for wild-type allele CYP2C8*1 (P < 0.05). Moreover, approximately 93% of the subjects with a CYP2C8*3 allele also carried a CYP2C9*2, and 80% of the subjects that had CYP2C9*2 variant also carried a CYP2C8*3. In addition, the four CYP2C9*2/*2 individuals were CYP2C8*3/*3. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first study showing the influence of CYP2C8 genotypes on diclofenac metabolism in vivo. The linkage disequilibrium between CYP2C8*3 and CYP2C9*2 alleles was confirmed in this Spanish population.

Increased risk for major depression associated with the short allele of the serotonin transporter promoter region (5-HTTLPR-S) and the CYP2C9*3 allele.

In the present study, we aimed to analyze the potential relevance of the polymorphism in the promoter region of the serotonin transporter (SERT or 5-HTT) gene (5-HTTLPR) and the risk of suffering major depression (MDD) in a population of patients previously genotyped for CYP2C9. Seventy white European psychiatric outpatients suffering from MDD and a group of 142 healthy volunteers (HVs) were studied. The frequency of subjects carrying the 5-HTTLPR-S allele was higher (P < 0.05) among MDD than in HV. The odds ratio associated with 5-HTTLPR-S allele was 2.03 for the MDD patients in comparison with the HV group. Previously, we found in this population that the CYP2C9*3 allele frequency was higher among this population of MDD patients than in HV. The frequency of subjects with the combination 5-HTTLPR-S and CYP2C9*3 alleles was higher (P < 0.01, odds ratio 3.47) in MDD than in HV. The present findings provide preliminary evidence about the greater risk of suffering MDD for individuals carrying both 5-HTTLPR-S and CYP2C9*3 alleles.

Low frequency of CYP2D6 poor metabolizers among schizophrenia patients.

CYP2D6 has been suggested to be functionally similar to the dopamine transporter. The present study was aimed at analysing the frequency of CYP2D6 alleles and genotype among schizophrenic patients compared to healthy volunteers. CYP2D6 *3, *4, *5, *6, *10 and duplicated alleles were analysed in 128 unselected schizophrenia inpatients (SP) and 142 unrelated white European Spanish healthy volunteers (HV). SP and HV with >2, 2, 1 or 0 CYP2D6 active genes were 4.7, 64.8, 28.1 and 2.3%, and 6.3, 52.1, 33.1 and 8.5%, respectively. The frequency of homozygous for CYP2D6 inactive alleles or poor metabolizers (PMs) was lower (P<0.05) in SP than in HV. Furthermore, the frequency of CYP2D6 inactive alleles was also lower in SP than in HV (16.8 vs 25.7; P<0.05), specifically the CYP2D6*6 allele was not found among patients. The present study shows a lower frequency of PMs in schizophrenic patients than in healthy volunteers supporting the hypothesis of a potential role of CYP2D6 in the vulnerability to schizophrenia.

Clinical implications of CYP2D6 genetic polymorphism during treatment with antipsychotic drugs.

CYP2D6 is described as the most relevant enzyme in the metabolism of many antipsychotic drugs. Its contribution to the interindividual differences in drug response is reviewed here highlighting its role in the kinetics of antipsychotic drugs and the occurrence of drug interactions. The activity of CYP2D6 is inherited as a monogenetic trait and the CYP2D6 gene appears highly polymorphic in humans. The polymorphic alleles may lead to altered activity of the CYP enzymes causing absent, decreased (poor), or increased (ultrarapid) metabolism that in turn influence the disposition of the antipsychotic drugs. Antipsychotic drug biotransformation is mainly determined by genetic factors mediating CYP2D6 gene polymorphism, however the importance of environmental factors (dietary, smoking, diseases, etc.) is also recognized. Additionally, the potential interaction between CYP2D6 and the endogenous metabolism must be taken into consideration. The present review summarizes the relevance of physiological and environmental factors in CYP2D6 hydroxylation capacity, the inhibition of CYP2D6 activity during treatment, the use of drug/metabolite ratio as a tool to evaluate CYP2D6 hydroxylation capacity in a patient, and the relevance of CYP2D6 for drug plasma concentration and for QTc interval lengthening during treatment with antipsychotic drugs.

Lower frequency of CYP2C9*2 in Mexican-Americans compared to Spaniards.

Interethnic differences in cytochrome P450 polymorphism might be responsible, at least in part, for the variations in drug disposition between ethnic groups. Of the various CYP2C9 alleles, CYP2C9*2 and CYP2C9*3 have been reported to have altered catalytic activities compared to the wild-type CYP2C9*1. The present study is aimed at analysing the CYP2C9 polymorphism in a Mexican-American compared with a Spanish population. Differences between the two populations of healthy volunteers, Mexican-Americans (n=98 subjects) and Spaniards (n=102 subjects), regarding the CYP2C9 allele frequencies have been found. CYP2C9 genotypes among the studied Mexican-American population are in equilibrium. The 95% CI were, respectively, 0.81-0.90 for CYP2C9*1 (n=169), 0.05-0.13 for CYP2C9*2 (n=16) and 0.031-0.10 for CYP2C9*3 (n=11). CYP2C9*4, *5 and *6 were found in none of the studied subjects. The frequency of CYP2C9*2 was lower among Mexican-Americans compared to Spaniards (P<0.05). The obtained frequency of CYP2C9 alleles is compatible with the genomic assembly of the constitutive potential ethnic origin of this population, and supports the need of pharmacogenetic studies for optimizing the recommended drug dosages to Mexican-Americans.

The role of cytochrome P450 enzymes in the metabolism of risperidone and its clinical relevance for drug interactions.

In the recent years it has been increasingly recognized that pharmacogenetical factors play an important role in the drug treatment. These factors may influence the appearance of side-effects and drug interactions due to interindividual differences in the activity of metabolizing enzymes. Risperidone in humans is mainly metabolized to 9-hydroxyrisperidone by the polymorphic cytochrome enzyme P450 2D6 (CYP2D6). Plasma concentrations of risperidone and 9-hydroxyrisperidone show large interindividual variability, which may be partly related to the activity of the CYP2D6 enzyme. Around seven percent of Caucasians have a genetically inherited impaired activity of the CYP2D6 enzyme. Debrisoquine metabolic ratio (a marker of CYP2D6 activity) and the number of CYP2D6 active genes have been related to risperidone plasma concentrations among patients during steady-state conditions. A large number drugs have been described to be metabolized by CYP2D6, and it is therefore important to evaluate the clinical significance of the impaired metabolism and possible drug interactions on the enzyme. Since risperidone/9-hydroxyrisperidone ratio strongly correlates with CYP2D6 enzyme activity and the number of CYP2D6 active genes, thus it might be a useful tool in clinical practice to estimate the possible risk of drug interactions due to impaired CYP2D6 enzyme activity. CYP3A4 is the most abundant drug metabolizing enzyme in humans, and in vitro and in vivo results suggest also a role for the enzyme in risperidone metabolism. The consideration of the implication of cytochrome P450 enzymes in risperidone metabolism may help to individualize dose schemes in order to avoid interactions and potentially dangerous side-effects, such us QTc interval lengthening among patients with cardiac risk factors.

CYP2C9 gene and susceptibility to major depressive disorder.

Alteration of monoaminergic neurotransmission has been implicated in the pathophysiology of mood disorders, and CYP2C9 enzyme activity has been shown to be modulated by serotonin in vitro. The present study was aimed at analysing the frequency of CYP2C9 alleles (*1, *2, *3) among patients suffering from major depressive disorder. In all, 70 such suffering psychiatric outpatients were studied. The CYP2C9 genotypes were determined by allele-specific PCR. The CYP2C9*3 allele frequency was higher (P<0.01) among the patients suffering from major depression than in a population of 89 schizophrenic patients (odds ratio=3.3) and 138 healthy volunteers (odds ratio=2.8). The results suggest that CYP2C9 genetic polymorphism may be related to a major depressive disorder due to an alteration in endogenous metabolism, although a linkage between CYP2C9 and some other gene related to depression cannot be ruled out.

Relationship between risperidone and 9-hydroxy-risperidone plasma concentrations and CYP2D6 enzyme activity in psychiatric patients.

The implication of cytochrome P450 CYP2D6 enzyme activity in the metabolism of the antipsychotic drug risperidone has been reported in vitro and in studies of healthy volunteers. Around 7 % of Caucasians have inherited impaired capacity of this enzyme (poor metabolisers). These subjects might be prone to higher plasma concentrations of risperidone. The aim of the study was to determine the relationship between the debrisoquine metabolic ratio (MR), a marker of CYP2D6 enzyme activity, and risperidone plasma levels in psychiatric patients. A population of 40 Spanish and Hungarian schizophrenic patients was studied. The possible inhibition of CYP2D6 enzyme was also evaluated in a subgroup of patients co-medicated with inhibitors of CYP2D6. The risperidone/9-hydroxy-risperidone ratio correlated significantly with debrisoquine MR (p < 0.001). In patients co-medicated with strong inhibitors of CYP2D6, the plasma levels of risperidone (p < 0.05) and debrisoquine MR (p < 0.01) and risperidone/9-hydroxy-risperidone ratio were higher compared to patients with monotherapy. According to the present data, the evaluation of the risperidone/9-hydroxy-risperidone ratio may reflect the actual enzyme activity of CYP2D6. Therefore, the use of this ratio may help to assess potential pharmacokinetic interactions and to improve risperidone treatment.