Provider implicit and explicit bias in person-centered maternity care: a cross-sectional study with maternity providers in Northern Ghana.

BACKGROUND: Person-centered maternity care (PCMC) has become a priority in the global health discourse on quality of care due to the high prevalence of disrespectful and lack of responsive care during facility-based childbirth. Although PCMC is generally sub-optimal, there are significant disparities. On average, women of low socioeconomic status (SES) tend to receive poorer PCMC than women of higher SES. Yet few studies have explored factors underlying these inequities. In this study, we examined provider implicit and explicit biases that could lead to inequitable PCMC based on SES. METHODS: Data are from a cross-sectional survey with 150 providers recruited from 19 health facilities in the Upper East region of Ghana from October 2020 to January 2021. Explicit SES bias was assessed using situationally-specific vignettes (low SES and high SES characteristics) on providers' perceptions of women's expectations, attitudes, and behaviors. Implicit SES bias was assessed using an Implicit Association Test (IAT) that measures associations between women's SES characteristics and providers' perceptions of women as 'difficult' or 'good'. Analysis included descriptive statistics, mixed-model ANOVA, and bivariate and multivariate linear regression. RESULTS: The average explicit bias score was 18.1 out of 28 (SD = 3.60) for the low SES woman vignette and 16.9 out of 28 (SD = 3.15) for the high SES woman vignette (p < 0.001), suggesting stronger negative explicit bias towards the lower SES woman. These biases manifested in higher agreement to statements such as the low SES woman in the vignette is not likely to expect providers to introduce themselves and is not likely to understand explanations. The average IAT score was 0.71 (SD = 0.43), indicating a significant bias in associating positive characteristics with high SES women and negative characteristics with low SES women. Providers with higher education had significantly lower explicit bias scores on the low SES vignette than those with less education. Providers in private facilities had higher IAT scores than those in government hospitals. CONCLUSIONS: The findings provide evidence of both implicit and explicit SES bias among maternity providers. These biases need to be addressed in interventions to achieve equity in PCMC and to improve PCMC for all women.

Individual and situational predictors of psychological and physiological stress and burnout among maternity providers in Northern Ghana.

BACKGROUND: Maternity providers, including nurses, midwives, physicians, are at significant risk for stress and burnout due to the nature of care provision in maternal and child health settings. Yet, the empirical evidence on stress and burnout among maternity providers in sub-Saharan Africa is scarce. Therefore, the purpose of our study was to (1) assess levels of stress and burnout among maternity providers and support staff in Ghana, and (2) identify individual and situational factors associated with maternity provider stress, burnout, and physiology. METHOD: Using a purposive sampling technique, we recruited 150 maternity providers from 19 high delivery health facilities within the 15 districts of the Upper East region (UER) of Ghana into a cross-sectional study. Participants completed Cohen's Perceived Stress Scale, the Shirom-Melamed Burnout scale, and sociodemographic, health-, and work-related items. Participants' heart rate variability (HRV) and hair cortisol levels were assessed for stress-related physiologic responses. We computed bivariate and multivariate linear regression models to examine factors associated with stress and burnout. RESULT: Most participants were experiencing moderate to high stress (58.0%) and burnout (65.8%). Each unit increase in overcommitment to work was associated with 0.62 higher perceived stress scores (ß = 0.62, 95% CI: 0.22, 1.02) and 0.15 higher burnout scores. On average, those who had experienced disrespect from colleagues in the last year had higher perceived stress scores compared to those who had not experienced disrespect (ß = 1.77, 95% CI: 0.50, 3.04); and those who had experienced disrespect from patients in the last year had higher cortisol levels than those who had not (ß = 0.52, 95% CI: 0.11, 0.93). Those who work for more than 5 days also had higher cortisol levels, on average, compared to those who worked fewer days a week. CONCLUSION: We found high levels of stress and burnout among maternity providers in Northern Ghana, underscoring the need for interventions to manage the effects of stress and burnout on maternity providers' wellbeing, quality of care, and patient outcomes. Healthcare management teams should assist providers in reducing their overcommitment by hiring more staff, given its strong link to stress and burnout. Additionally, facilitating a respectful workplace culture could also help reduce stress and burnout among maternity providers.

Self-reported provision of person-centred maternity care among providers in Kenya and Ghana: scale validation and examination of associated factors.

INTRODUCTION: Person-centred maternity care (PCMC), which refers to care that is respectful and responsive to women's preferences needs, and values, is core to high-quality maternal and child health. Provider-reported PCMC provision is a potentially valid means of assessing the extent of PCMC and contributing factors. Our objectives are to assess the psychometric properties of a provider-reported PCMC scale, and to examine levels and factors associated with PCMC provision. METHODS: We used data from two cross-sectional surveys with 236 maternity care providers from Ghana (n=150) and Kenya (n=86). Analysis included factor analysis to assess construct validity and Cronbach's alpha to assess internal consistency of the scale; descriptive analysis to assess extent of PCMC and bivariate and multivariable linear regression to examine factors associated with PCMC. FINDINGS: The 9-item provider-reported PCMC scale has high construct validity and reliability representing a unidimensional scale with a Cronbach's alpha of 0.72. The average standardised PCMC score for the combined sample was 66.8 (SD: 14.7). PCMC decreased with increasing report of stress and burnout. Compared with providers with no burnout, providers with burnout had lower average PCMC scores (ß: -7.30, 95% CI:-11.19 to -3.40 for low burnout and ß: -10.86, 95% CI: -17.21 to -4.51 for high burnout). Burnout accounted for over half of the effect of perceived stress on PCMC. CONCLUSION: The provider PCMC scale is a valid and reliable measure of provider self-reported PCMC and highlights inadequate provision of PCMC in Kenya and Ghana. Provider burnout is a key driver of poor PCMC that needs to be addressed to improve PCMC.