How does family functioning contribute to academic-related outcomes of Chinese adolescents: the mediating role of spirituality.

While family functioning is crucial to adolescent developmental outcomes, the mediating role of spirituality in the relationship between family functioning and academic-related outcomes of adolescents has been sparsely explored, particularly in non-Western contexts. To address this gap, based on a short-term longitudinal study, we examined the influence of family functioning on the academic values and academic anxiety of 4,981 Chinese adolescents in Sichuan, China, with spirituality as the mediator. We gathered data from students aged 11 and above at Wave 1 and at six months later (Wave 2). Analysis utilizing structural equation modeling indicated that prior family functioning positively and negatively predicted subsequent academic values and academic anxiety respectively, with spirituality as a significant mediator. Theoretically, this study helps to build up a conceptual model on how family functioning and spirituality of adolescents shape academic values and academic anxiety of adolescents. Practically, the present findings highlight the significance of enhancing family functioning and adolescent spirituality to help adolescents strive for academic success.

Psychosocial correlates of mental health of university students in Hong Kong under COVID-19.

Although the COVID-19 pandemic has caused many problems for university students, there are several research gaps in the study of psychological well-being of Hong Kong university students. First, few studies have examined different ecological correlates of mental health in a single study. Second, few studies have used both psychological morbidity and positive well-being as indicators of mental health. Third, we know little about the relationships between university students' perceived need satisfaction, difficulties, service utilization, and their mental health. Hence, we conducted a study (N = 1,020 university students) in the later stage of the COVID-19 pandemic in Hong Kong. For mental health, we included measures of negative mental health (psychological morbidity) and positive mental health. We addressed several research questions in this study: (1) what is the mental health status of Hong Kong university students? (2) what is the relationship between COVID-19 stress and student mental health? (3) what are the intrapersonal correlates of student mental health? (4) are interpersonal factors related to student mental health? (5) are need satisfaction, difficulties encountered, and service utilization related to students' mental health? (6) are there gender differences in the effects of correlates in different ecological systems? Analyses using structural equation modeling showed several observations. First, the prevalence of mental health symptoms among university students was alarming. Second, COVID-19 related socio-economic stress positively predicted psychological morbidity but negatively predicted well-being. Third, beliefs about adversity, resilience, and emotional competence predicted mental health. Fourth, family functioning was related to psychological morbidity negatively but connected with well-being positively. Fifth, while need satisfaction predicted psychological morbidity negatively, difficulties encountered showed the opposite direction. Besides, the perceived usefulness of university services positively predicted mental health. Finally, there were no gender differences in the effects of different predictors. The present findings enable public health researchers to formulate theoretical models on different ecological determinants of university students' mental health under the pandemic. For public health practitioners, the study highlights the importance of reducing COVID-19 associated stress, strengthening internal and external developmental assets, and meeting the psychosocial needs of university students as strategies to promote their mental health under the pandemic.

Psychometric properties of the Chinese Family Assessment Instrument: evidence from mainland China.

Regarding the assessment of family functioning in Chinese people, there are several research gaps. First, although there are some instruments in the field, there are very few validated instruments. Second, while some translated measures have been developed, there are very few assessment tools based on indigenous Chinese concepts. Third, compared to Hong Kong, research on family assessment is relatively inactive in mainland China. Fourth, there are very few family assessment tools to assess perceived family functioning in older children and early adolescents. Fifth, few studies used large samples to validate family assessment tools. Sixth, researchers seldom utilized longitudinal data to examine the psychometric properties of family assessment tools. Finally, few studies have examined factorial validity across samples and time to demonstrate the stability of Chinese family assessment measures. In Hong Kong, based on focus group data (i.e., indigenous concepts of family functioning) and an integration with the family science literature, we have developed the Chinese Family Assessment Instrument (C-FAI) to assess perceived family functioning according to the perception of adolescents. Results showed that the C-FAI possessed good reliability and validity. Specifically, five dimensions of the measure (mutuality, communication, conflict, parental concern and parental control) were supported via exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis. Convergent validity and reliability of the C-FAI were illustrated. To understand the psychometric properties of the C-FAI in mainland China, we collected three waves of data from students in the period of preadolescence and early adolescence in mainland China (N = 3,732). Based on the data, we examined the psychometric properties of the measure, particularly factor invariance in different samples and at different times. Confirmatory factor analysis provided support for the five dimensions in C-FAI, including factorial invariance in terms of configuration, factor loading, intercepts, and over time. There was evidence for convergent validity and discriminant validity of the measure. Finally, reliability analyses showed that the total C-FAI scale and its subscales are internally consistent. The present findings suggest that family researchers and practitioners can use the C-FAI to objectively assess perceived family functioning in preadolescence and early adolescence in different Chinese communities.

Socio-demographic and mental health correlates of internet addiction amongst Hong Kong university students under COVID-19.

Introduction: Regarding the problem of Internet addiction (IA) amongst university students under the pandemic, there are several research gaps. Firstly, few studies have examined IA of university students in Hong Kong, which is a Chinese society heavily influenced by Western values. In addition, findings on the socio-demographic correlates and psychological well-being predictors of IA in university students are unclear. Finally, researchers have not systematically examined the interaction effects of socio-demographic factors (particularly gender and personal infection of COVID-19) and psychological morbidity on IA. This pioneer study aimed to investigate the predictive role of socio-demographic factors and psychological morbidity in IA, and the moderating effects of gender and personal infection of COVID-19 on the relationship between psychological morbidity and IA. Methods: We conducted an online survey (N = 1,020 university students) during the ending phase of Wave 5 of the pandemic in Hong Kong (late 2022 to early 2023). Socio-demographic correlates included age, gender, living status, personal and family financial situation, student status, personal and family infection of COVID-19. Participants responded to validated measures of psychological morbidity, including depression, suicidal behavior, and hopelessness. Hierarchical regression and simple slope analyses were used to examine the predictive role of socio-demographic variables and psychological morbidity in IA and the interactive effect of gender and personal infection of COVID-19 with psychological morbidity on IA. Results: Personal financial difficulty was a significant socio-demographic predictor of IA. Depression, suicidal behavior, and hopelessness positively predicted IA. We also found a significant interaction effect of gender and psychological morbidity on IA. While the predictive relationship between depression and IA was stronger in males than in females, hopelessness was more strongly related to IA in females than in males. Finally, there was a significant interaction effect of personal infection of COVID-19 and suicidal behavior on IA. Conclusion: Personal financial difficulty was a socio-economic correlate of IA. Psychological morbidity also predicted IA. Gender and personal infection of COVID-19 moderated the linkage between psychological morbidity and IA. The findings of the study enhance our understanding of individual differences in IA in university students during the pandemic, particularly concerning different ecological risk factors.

Profiles and predictors of mental health of university students in Hong Kong under the COVID-19 pandemic.

This study investigated the mental health problems of university students in Hong Kong and related sociodemographic and psychosocial predictors under the pandemic. A total of 978 undergraduate students (mean age = 20.69 ± 1.61) completed an online questionnaire measuring sociodemographic factors, psychological morbidity, positive well-being, COVID-19 related stress and self-efficacy, and positive psychosocial attributes. Psychosocial risk factors included psychological morbidity, COVID-19 related stress, and difficulties encountered under the pandemic, whereas protective factors comprised pandemic related self-efficacy, positive psychological attributes, positive environmental factors, need satisfaction and positive perception toward service. Results showed that psychological morbidity in the participants was widespread, and it was related to sociodemographic factors, particularly family financial difficulties. While pandemic related stress positively predicted psychological morbidity and negatively predicted well-being indicators, COVID-19 self-efficacy showed an opposite effect. Besides, positive psychological attributes (resilience, emotional competence, and positive beliefs related to adversity) and environmental factors (healthy family functioning, peer support, and supportive community atmosphere) negatively predicted psychological morbidity and positively predicted well-being. Furthermore, need satisfaction and positive perception toward service were negatively associated with psychological morbidity and positively associated with well-being, while perceived difficulties showed an opposite effect.

Family functioning and resilience in children in mainland China: life satisfaction as a mediator.

Introduction: Grounded in the perspective of "Positive Youth Development" (PYD), resilience is an important developmental asset shaping human development. Although many studies have examined the impact of resilience on child developmental outcomes, relatively few studies have focused on the predictors of resilience, in particular familial antecedents of resilience in Chinese children and adolescents. In addition, the degree to which life satisfaction contributes to the mechanism by which family functioning impacts the development of children's resilience over time needs to be clarified. Besides, there is a scarcity of studies that incorporate family functioning, resilience as well as life satisfaction in a single comprehensive investigation to analyze the mediating impact of life satisfaction on the linkage between family functioning and resilience under COVID-19. Methods: The study investigated the predictive role of family functioning on resilience as well as the mediating effect of life satisfaction within the context of COVID-19, using data gathered in two waves before the onset of the pandemic and after the resumption of school during the pandemic, with 6 months apart. We employed the 33-item "Chinese Family Assessment Instrument" to evaluate family functioning, the 7-item "Chinese Resilience Scale" to assess resilience, and the "Satisfaction with Life Scale" with 5 items to measure life satisfaction. Results: As per the responses of 4,783 students in Grades 4 through 7 recruited in Sichuan, China, family functioning significantly predicted resilience concurrently and longitudinally. After controlling for resilience scores in Wave 1, results demonstrated that family functioning examined in Wave 1 predicted an increase in resilience reported in Wave 2. In addition, family functioning significantly predicted life satisfaction, which also significantly predicted resilience. Multiple regression using PROCESS analyses indicated that life satisfaction mediated the predictive relationship between family functioning and child resilience. Discussion: The findings spotlight the significant involvement of family functioning as well as life satisfaction in shaping children's resilience in the Chinese context. The study also supports the hypothesis that perceived satisfaction with life serves as a mediator between family functioning and child resilience, suggesting interventions and support should concentrate on the family level for enhancing resilience in children.

Developing and validating a multidimensional Chinese Parental Psychological Control Scale.

Introduction: This study validated a Chinese Parental Psychological Control Scale (CPPCS) among secondary school students in mainland China. Methods: The item pool consisting of 65 items was constructed based on consultation with existing measures and focus group interviews of 19 Chinese adolescents. After content validation conducted by 14 experts, a total of 40 items were retained and subject to further factorial validation based on a sample of 963 Chinese adolescents (mean age = 13.39 ± 0.72; 52.23% females). Results: Using the two random-split half samples, exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses retained 30 items that loaded on three factors, including "relational induction" (twelve items), "harsh psychological control" (twelve items), and "social comparison shame" (six items). The three-factor structure was invariant across gender (male versus female) and grades (grade 7 versus grade 8) among the whole sample. Cronbach's αs of the three dimensions in maternal and paternal subscales ranged between 0.89 and 0.92, suggesting adequate internal consistency. The three dimensions were significantly correlated with each other, supporting the scale's convergent validity. The concurrent validity of the CPPCS was supported by the positive correlations between subscales and parental rejection, and the negative correlations between subscales and parental warmth. In addition, while the "harsh psychological control" and "social comparison shame" negatively predicted adolescents' well-being, "relational induction" positively predicted adolescents' well-being. Discussion: The findings suggest that the CPPCS is a promising instrument for measuring multidimensional psychological control among Chinese parents and for investigating and comparing individual dimensions' effect on adolescents' development.

Self-leadership as an attribute of service leadership: Its relationship to well-being among university students in Hong Kong.

Introduction: In the scientific literature, although conceptual models and empirical evidence have shown that leadership attributes are intimately linked to the well-being of followers, there is a lack of studies focusing on leadership in the service economy. According to the Service Leadership Theory, service leadership is a process that satisfies the needs of self, others, and systems (teams, organizations, communities, and societies) in ethical ways that is characterized by leadership competence, character, and care. With specific reference to self-leadership emphasized in service leadership, higher levels of service leadership attributes should promote personal well-being. However, the relationships between "service leadership attributes" and "well-being" in leaders at the intrapersonal level in leadership education among Chinese university students are rarely examined. Methods: In this study, we collected data from 198 students to understand the linkages between "service leadership attributes" and "well-being" in university students taking a course on service leadership. For tracking changes in students, we collected both pretest and posttest data on validated measures of "service leadership attributes" (i.e., "knowledge," "attitude," and "behavior") and "well-being" (i.e., "positive youth development attributes" and "life satisfaction"). Results: Results showed that the posttest scores on all three domains of "service leadership attributes" as well as two dimensions of "well-being" encompassing life satisfaction and positive youth development attributes were higher than the respective pretest scores, suggesting that students experienced a shift in a positive direction after taking the course. Cross-lagged analyses showed that pretest service leadership attitude and behavior predicted posttest positive youth development attributes; pretest service leadership behavior predicted posttest life satisfaction. Pretest life satisfaction also predicted posttest service leadership behavior. Discussion: Findings suggest that there is an intimate relationship between "service leadership attributes" and "well-being" in the "pre-work" context among university students.

Ecological predictors of academic satisfaction in senior secondary school students in Hong Kong: The mediating role of academic confidence.

Introduction: Although the secondary school curriculum reform has taken place for more than 1 decade in Hong Kong, very few studies have examined senior secondary school students' academic satisfaction and its predictors at the individual and school levels. The present study examined the influence of academic stress, school support, positive youth development (PYD) attributes on academic satisfaction via the mediation of academic confidence among senior secondary school students using three-wave longitudinal data. Methods: This study was derived from a 6-year longitudinal project examining youth development among Hong Kong adolescents. Only three waves of data collected from 2,023 students, including 959 boys (47.4%) and 1,040 girls (51.4%), from grade 10 to 12 (i.e., Waves 4-6), were used in the present study focusing on senior high school years. Students responded to a questionnaire concerning different aspects of their development, including their perceptions of school support, PYD attributes, academic stress, academic confidence, and satisfaction with the NSS curriculum. We conducted structural equation modeling (SEM) to test the hypothesized model. Results: Results showed that while Wave 4 academic stress negatively predicted academic satisfaction at Wave 6, Wave 4 positive youth development attributes and school support had positive associations with Wave 6 academic satisfaction; Wave 5 academic confidence also served as a mediator in these relationships, except for the relationship between school support and academic satisfaction. Discussion: The theoretical, practical, and policy implications of the findings are discussed. The present study generally supports previous findings on the relationships between academic stress, school support, PYD attributes, academic confidence, and academic satisfaction. The findings emphasize the prominence of PYD attributes, school support, and confidence in enhancing students' academic satisfaction.

Law abidance leadership education for university students in Hong Kong: Post-lecture evaluation.

Law abidance is very important for effective leaders. Without law abidance, abuse of power and corruption would easily happen, which would eventually erode organizational health. To promote law abidance leadership in university students in Hong Kong, we developed a law abidance leadership program with 3 h of face-to-face lecture and 7 h of self-study of materials disturbed to students. To understand students' perception of the 3-h lecture, we conducted a post-lecture evaluation study using a 26-item measure (N = 914). Results showed that the scale possessed good reliability and validity. Confirmatory factor analyses showed that the assessment tool has three internally consistent and factorial invariant dimensions: program attributes, appreciation of law abidance, and teacher attributes. Regarding students' perception of the program, students were generally satisfied with the lecture attributes, including design, content, lecture atmosphere, teaching quality, and benefits to students. In particular, students agreed that the lecture helped them understand the importance and value of law abidance and national security; over 95% of the students indicated that they would try their best to serve as law-abiding citizens and socially responsible leaders. Multiple regression analyses showed that program attributes, appreciation of law abidance, and teacher attributes predicted overall satisfaction with the lecture. Qualitative comments of the student echoed the quantitative findings, with most of the comments being positive in nature. The present study replicated the findings reported previously. Local and international contextual factors relevant to the interpretations of the findings are highlighted.

Impact of Family Functioning on Adolescent Materialism and Egocentrism in Mainland China: Positive Youth Development Attributes as a Mediator.

Although adolescent materialism and egocentrism are growing problems in Chinese societies, there are very few studies investigating their predictors and related mediators. Longitudinal studies in this area are also sparse. Based on a short-term longitudinal study (n = 4981), we assessed the impact of family functioning on materialism and egocentrism of Chinese adolescents, with positive youth development attributes as a hypothesized mediating factor. Results showed that family functioning positively predicted positive youth development attributes but negatively predicted adolescent materialism and egocentrism; positive youth development attributes also negatively predicted adolescent materialism and egocentrism. Mediational analyses showed that positive youth development attributes mediated the impact of family functioning on adolescent materialism and egocentrism. The theoretical and methodological advances of the study are discussed.

Hong Kong high school students' perceptions of the new secondary school curriculum.

Background: The New Senior Secondary (NSS) curriculum in Hong Kong aims to change the exam-oriented culture and promote students' all-around development. This reform emphasizes student-centered learning and promotes a shift from a top-down approach to school-based management, with the ultimate goal to help students become lifelong learners. This study examined students' perceptions of the NSS curriculum with a focus on their noncognitive development (e.g., self-understanding, positive values, purpose in life, and resilience). Methods: The data were collected from 3,498 Secondary 6 students in Hong Kong (Girls: 47.7%; Mean age: 17.33 years) using a self-reported questionnaire in 2015. We examined the psychometric properties of the instrument, "Perceptions of the New Secondary School Curriculum" (PNSC), and conducted multigroup CFA to evaluate the measurement invariance of PNSC across genders. Paired t-test analysis was used to examine whether students perceived the junior and senior secondary curricula differently. A series of multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) were conducted to examine students' perceptions of the curriculum by gender and by academic performance level. Results: Results based on percentage responses showed that most students liked the curriculum and acknowledged its benefits in promoting their noncognitive development. However, substantial proportions of the students also reported relatively negative responses to some items, particularly their fondness for senior secondary education. Students generally reported higher fondness for the junior secondary curriculum than for the senior secondary curriculum. Girls had more positive perceptions of the NSS curriculum than did boys. High-performing students liked the NSS curriculum the most and perceived the most benefits of the curriculum in promoting their noncognitive skills, whereas low-performing students showed the lowest levels of fondness for/interest in the curriculum and perceived benefits. Conclusions: Our findings support previous evidence showing initial success in promoting students' noncognitive skills but also alert educators and policymakers that the curriculum should not leave the low-performing students behind. Collective efforts from schools, educational bureaus, researchers, and policymakers are needed to take appropriate measures to cater to students' balanced development.

Need Satisfaction and Depressive Symptoms Among University Students in Hong Kong During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Moderating Effects of Positive Youth Development Attributes.

As studies on the mental health status of university students during the COVID-19 pandemic are almost non-existent in Hong Kong, we examined four research questions in this paper: What is the prevalence of depressive symptoms in university students in Hong Kong? What are the socio-demographic correlates of depressive symptoms? Do need satisfaction and positive youth development (PYD) attributes, including beliefs about adversity, psychosocial competence (resilience and emotional competence) and family functioning predict depression? Do PYD attributes moderate the predictive effect of need satisfaction on depression? We examined the above research questions using the Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale Revised (CESD-R) in 1,648 university students in Hong Kong. For PYD attributes, we utilized validated measures of Chinese beliefs about adversity, psychosocial competence (resilience and emotional competence), and family functioning. For need satisfaction, we used a measure derived from two focus group interviews involving university students. Results showed that 48.4% of the respondents (95% confidence interval = [45.9%, 51.1%]) scored 16 or above (i.e., "at-risk" for clinical depression). As predicted, age, gender, student status (local vs. international), and family financial hardship were significant socio-demographic correlates of depressive symptoms. Besides, need satisfaction and PYD attributes negatively predicted depression scores. Finally, multiple regression analyses controlling for gender, age, and student status as covariates showed that all PYD attributes moderated the impact of need satisfaction on depression. The findings reinforce the theoretical proposition that PYD attributes serve as important factors in protecting the mental health of university students during the pandemic.

Prevalence and Correlates of Mental Health of University Students in Hong Kong: What Happened One Year After the Occurrence of COVID-19?

Purpose: In this study, we studied the prevalence and correlates of mental health problems (depression, anxiety, and stress) in Hong Kong university students after one year of the occurrence of COVID-19. We examined the relationships between mental health problems and socio-demographic factors (including age, gender, local/international students, living status, and economic strain), need satisfaction, and difficulties encountered. Methods: A cross-sectional online survey involving 1,648 university students (Mean age = 20.09 years ± 1.37) was conducted. They responded to a questionnaire assessing their mental health (including the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scales-DASS), psychosocial resources, social support, need satisfaction, difficulties and challenges, and evaluation of services they received. Results: Based on DASS cutoff scores, prevalence rates of moderate or above levels of depression, anxiety, and stress were 40.0, 50.7, and 22.2%, respectively. While age and gender were not related to the DASS measures, economic strain and living alone were positively related to negative emotional states based on the results of MANOVAs. Multiple regression and PROCESS analyses showed that need satisfaction and difficulties contributed to depression and anxiety, with stress as a mediating factor. Conclusions: The proportions of students who experienced moderate and above levels of depression (40.0%), anxiety (50.7%), and stress (22.2%) indexed by DASS deserve attention. Living alone and experienced economic disadvantage are risk factors for negative emotional states. Need satisfaction and life challenges are related to negative emotional states. Need satisfaction and difficulties contributed to stress, which further influenced anxiety and depression.

Family Functioning and Adolescent Delinquency in Mainland China: Positive Youth Development Attributes as a Mediator.

According to the positive youth development (PYD) approach, PYD attributes such as psychosocial competencies are developmental assets which can promote the holistic development of adolescents, such as increase in thriving and decrease in risk behavior. Although there are research findings supporting this theoretical proposition, there are several weaknesses in this literature. These include a lack of studies examining family antecedents of PYD attributes and the mediating role of PYD attributes in the relationship between family functioning and adolescent delinquency. There are also few longitudinal studies utilizing large samples and validated measures of family functioning and PYD attributes in the scientific literature. In this study, we examined the predictive effect of family functioning on adolescent delinquency and the mediating role of PYD attributes. Using a short-term longitudinal study in Sichuan, China, we collected two waves of data from 4,981 adolescents aged 11 and above, with 6 months between the two waves. Analyses using structural equation modeling showed that family functioning at Wave 1 negatively predicted the level of and change in delinquent behavior at Wave 2, with PYD attributes at Wave 2 as a mediating factor. The present study enriches the conceptual framework on the role of family functioning and PYD attributes in adolescent delinquent behavior. The findings also suggest that strengthening family functioning and PYD attributes would protect adolescents from engaging in delinquent acts.

Materialism, Egocentrism and Delinquent Behavior in Chinese Adolescents in Mainland China: A Short-Term Longitudinal Study.

Although research generally showed that holding materialistic beliefs would lead to poor developmental outcomes, few studies have used adolescent delinquency as an outcome measure. In addition, the intervening processes between materialism and adolescent developmental outcomes are unclear. In particular, it is not clear how materialistic beliefs influence egocentrism and adolescent delinquency. Methodologically, the existing studies have several weaknesses, including small samples, cross-sectional research designs, and being limited to people living in Western cultures. Using two waves of data collected from Sichuan, China (N = 4981), we studied the predictive effect of adolescent materialism on delinquency and the mediating role of egocentrism. Over two occasions separated by six months, students aged 11 and above responded to a questionnaire evaluating adolescent materialism, egocentrism, and delinquency (mean Wave 1 age = 13.15, range between 11 and 20.38). Results of multiple regression analyses suggested that materialism at Time 1 positively predicted Time 2 egocentrism. Additionally, Time 1 materialism positively predicted the level and change in Time 2 delinquency. Finally, based on 5000 bootstrap samples with gender, age, ethnic group, and Time 1 delinquent behavior as covariates, PROCESS analyses showed that egocentrism partially mediated the influence of Time 1 materialism delinquency and its change at Time 2. This study suggests that materialistic beliefs shape egocentrism, which further strengthens adolescent delinquent behavior. This study also replicates the findings of a pioneer study in China reported previously.

Satisfaction with HyFlex Teaching and Law-abiding Leadership Education in Hong Kong University Students Under COVID-19.

Since the early days of COVID-19, university teaching has changed from face-to-face format to online mode. With the gradual containment of the pandemic, there is no need for school lockdown. As a result, the teaching format has changed to HyFlex mode integrating both face-to-face and online modes. Obviously, it is necessary to understand the academic quality of life among students under the Hyflex teaching mode. In this paper, we report an evaluation study on a leadership subject in Hong Kong delivered via HyFlex teaching using a post-lecture evaluation strategy. In one of the lectures, we covered law-abiding leadership in university students, including abiding by the Hong Kong National Security Law. The post-lecture evaluation showed that students generally held positive views toward the HyFlex teaching and they perceived that the subject promoted their well-being indexed by psychosocial competence. Regarding the lecture on law-abiding leadership, students agreed that the lecture promoted their psychosocial competence, personal development, knowledge about law-abiding behavior and national security (including the Hong Kong National Security Law), and readiness to serve as socially responsible leaders. Positive perceptions of the lecture design, teacher performance, lecture content of law-abiding leadership and national security, and benefits positively predicted students' overall satisfaction with the lecture on law-abiding leadership and national security.

National Security Law Education in Hong Kong: Qualitative Evaluation Based on the Perspective of the Students.

In this paper, we adopted a qualitative evaluation approach to understand the subjective views of the students on a program on law abidance leadership education covering the Hong Kong National Security Law. The program involves a 3 h lecture and 7 h of self-study on topics surrounding national security. To evaluate the program, we adopted a general qualitative research design to collect data via focus groups using a semi-structured interview guide. Researchers with a doctoral degree and qualitative research experiences conducted six focus groups involving 52 randomly selected students, with 6 to 12 participants per group. Results showed high inter-rater reliability in the thematic analyses. With reference to the questions in the semi-structured interviews, several observations could be highlighted. First, students had different views on different aspects of the lecture, including content, arrangement, lecture notes and assessment. Second, students generally had positive views of teachers' interaction with students and their teaching performance. Third, students had positive learning experiences and they perceived benefits and value of the program. Fourth, despite the positive comments of the students, some students proposed suggestions for improvement. Finally, the program was not seen as brainwashing by the students. Together with evaluation findings based on four other evaluation studies, the triangulated findings suggest that this program promoted the knowledge about law abidance leadership in the students and nurtured their positive attitudes towards law abidance.

Dimensionality of the Chinese CES-D: Is It Stable across Gender, Time, and Samples?

Depression is a common mental illness among Chinese adolescents. Although the Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) has been widely used in diverse populations, the reported factor structures are inconsistent, and its longitudinal invariance is under-researched. This study examined the psychometric properties and factorial invariance across gender and time of the CES-D among Chinese adolescents. Adolescents aged above 11 years from five schools in Chengdu responded to a questionnaire at Wave 1 (n = 5690). Among them, 4981 participants completed the same questionnaire after six months (Wave 2). The matched sample was composed of 4922 students (51.5% were girls; mean age = 13.15 years) at Wave 1. We used exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to examine the factor structure and performed multi-group CFA to test the factorial invariance across gender and time. A three-factor solution was identified, including "positive affect", "somatic complaints", and "depressed affect". Results of multi-group CFA comparisons supported the factorial invariance of the resultant three-factor solution. Using a new sample of Chinese adolescents in Southwestern China, the present study reproduced earlier findings on adolescents in other areas in China. This study has implications for depression assessment and research in Chinese adolescents.