Comparative genomic analysis of human Chlamydia pneumoniae isolates from respiratory, brain and cardiac tissues.

Chlamydia pneumoniae is an obligate intracellular bacterium implicated in a wide range of human diseases including atherosclerosis and Alzheimer's disease. Efforts to understand the relationships between C. pneumoniae detected in these diseases have been hindered by the availability of sequence data for non-respiratory strains. In this study, we sequenced the whole genomes for C. pneumoniae isolates from atherosclerosis and Alzheimer's disease, and compared these to previously published C. pneumoniae genomes. Phylogenetic analyses of these new C. pneumoniae strains indicate two sub-groups within human C. pneumoniae, and suggest that both recombination and mutation events have driven the evolution of human C. pneumoniae. Further fine-detailed analyses of these new C. pneumoniae sequences show several genetically variable loci. This suggests that similar strains of C. pneumoniae are found in the brain, lungs and cardiovascular system and that only minor genetic differences may contribute to the adaptation of particular strains in human disease.

Effect of the CALHM1 G330D and R154H human variants on the control of cytosolic Ca2+ and Aß levels.

CALHM1 is a plasma membrane voltage-gated Ca2+-permeable ion channel that controls amyloid-ß (Aß) metabolism and is potentially involved in the onset of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Recently, Rubio-Moscardo et al. (PLoS One (2013) 8: e74203) reported the identification of two CALHM1 variants, G330D and R154H, in early-onset AD (EOAD) patients. The authors provided evidence that these two human variants were rare and resulted in a complete loss of CALHM1 function. Recent publicly available large-scale exome sequencing data confirmed that R154H is a rare CALHM1 variant (minor allele frequency (MAF)  = 0.015%), but that G330D is not (MAF  = 3.5% in an African American cohort). Here, we show that both CALHM1 variants exhibited gating and permeation properties indistinguishable from wild-type CALHM1 when expressed in Xenopus oocytes. While there was also no effect of the G330D mutation on Ca2+ uptake by CALHM1 in transfected mammalian cells, the R154H mutation was associated with defects in the control by CALHM1 of both Ca2+ uptake and Aß levels in this cell system. Together, our data show that the frequent CALHM1 G330D variant has no obvious functional consequences and is therefore unlikely to contribute to EOAD. Our data also demonstrate that the rare R154H variant interferes with CALHM1 control of cytosolic Ca2+ and Aß accumulation. While these results strengthen the notion that CALHM1 influences Aß metabolism, further investigation will be required to determine whether CALHM1 R154H, or other natural variants in CALHM1, is/are associated with EOAD.

CALHM1 controls the Ca²âº-dependent MEK, ERK, RSK and MSK signaling cascade in neurons.

Calcium homeostasis modulator 1 (CALHM1) is a Ca(2+) channel controlling neuronal excitability and potentially involved in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Although strong evidence indicates that CALHM1 is required for neuronal electrical activity, its role in intracellular Ca(2+) signaling remains unknown. In the present study, we show that in hippocampal HT-22 cells, CALHM1 expression led to a robust and relatively selective activation of the Ca(2+)-sensing kinases ERK1/2. CALHM1 also triggered activation of MEK1/2, the upstream ERK1/2-activating kinases, and of RSK1/2/3 and MSK1, two downstream effectors of ERK1/2 signaling. CALHM1-mediated activation of ERK1/2 signaling was controlled by the small GTPase Ras. Pharmacological inhibition of CALHM1 permeability using Ruthenium Red, Zn(2+), and Gd(3+), or expression of the CALHM1 N140A and W114A mutants, which are deficient in mediating Ca(2+) influx, prevented the effect of CALHM1 on the MEK, ERK, RSK and MSK signaling cascade, demonstrating that CALHM1 controlled this pathway via its channel properties. Importantly, expression of CALHM1 bearing the natural P86L polymorphism, which leads to a partial loss of CALHM1 function and is associated with an earlier age at onset in AD patients, showed reduced activation of ERK1/2, RSK1/2/3, and MSK1. In line with these results obtained in transfected cells, primary cerebral neurons isolated from Calhm1 knockout mice showed significant impairments in the activation of MEK, ERK, RSK and MSK signaling. The present study identifies a previously uncharacterized mechanism of control of Ca(2+)-dependent ERK1/2 signaling in neurons, and further establishes CALHM1 as a critical ion channel for neuronal signaling and function.

Identification of potent small-molecule inhibitors of STAT3 with anti-inflammatory properties in RAW 264.7 macrophages.

Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) is a key mediator of the inflammatory response of macrophages and other immune cell types. The naturally occurring polyphenol resveratrol is associated with anti-proliferative and anti-inflammatory properties via mechanisms implicating inhibition of STAT3 signaling. Here, we report that the small-molecule analogs of resveratrol, RSVA314 and RSVA405, are potent inhibitors of STAT3. RSVA314 and RSVA405 inhibited both constitutive and stimulated STAT3 activity in HEK293 cells and lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages, respectively. The small-molecule analogs inhibited STAT3 nearly 50 times more potently than did resveratrol (apparent IC(50) ~0.5 µM). We further show that RSVA405 interfered with the inflammatory response by RAW 264.7 cells upon lipopolysaccharide stimulation by inhibiting IκB kinase and IκBα phosphorylation and by decreasing the expression of several cytokines, including the NF-κB target genes tumor necrosis factor α and interleukin-6. Downstream activation of STAT1 upon lipopolysaccharide stimulation was also inhibited by RSVA405. Consequently, RSVA405 significantly interfered with the phagocytotic activity and proliferation of lipopolysaccharide-activated RAW 264.7 macrophages. Finally, we found that the effect of the two small-molecule analogs on STAT3 phosphorylation could be prevented by inhibitors of protein tyrosine phosphatases, indicating that the small molecules acted by promoting dephosphorylation of STAT3 by protein tyrosine phosphatases.

CALHM1 P86L polymorphism modulates CSF Aß levels in cognitively healthy individuals at risk for Alzheimer's disease.

The calcium homeostasis modulator 1 (CALHM1) gene codes for a novel cerebral calcium channel controlling intracellular calcium homeostasis and amyloid-ß (Aß) peptide metabolism, a key event in the etiology of Alzheimer's disease (AD). The P86L polymorphism in CALHM1 (rs2986017) initially was proposed to impair CALHM1 functionally and to lead to an increase in Aß accumulation in vitro in cell lines. Recently, it was reported that CALHM1 P86L also may influence Aß metabolism in vivo by increasing Aß levels in human cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Although the role of CALHM1 in AD risk remains uncertain, concordant data have now emerged showing that CALHM1 P86L is associated with an earlier age at onset of AD. Here, we have analyzed the association of CALHM1 P86L with CSF Aß in samples from 203 AD cases and 46 young cognitively healthy individuals with a positive family history of AD. We failed to detect an association between the CALHM1 polymorphism and CSF Aß levels in AD patients. Our data, however, revealed a significant association of CALHM1 P86L with elevated CSF Aß42 and Aß40 in the normal cohort at risk for AD. This work shows that CALHM1 modulates CSF Aß levels in presymptomatic individuals, strengthening the notion that CALHM1 is involved in AD pathogenesis. These data further demonstrate the utility of endophenotype-based approaches focusing on CSF biomarkers for the identification or validation of risk factors for AD.

Performance-based measures of everyday function in mild cognitive impairment.

OBJECTIVE: The view that everyday function is preserved in mild cognitive impairment may be problematic. The objectives of this study were to determine the magnitude of impairment in everyday function in patients with mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease using a novel sensitive performance-based measure (the UCSD Performance-Based Skills Assessment; UPSA), contrast it with use of an informant-based measure (the Alzheimer's Disease Cooperative Study-Activities of Daily Living Inventory; ADCS-ADL), and model the relationship between cognitive measures and the performance-based measure. METHOD: Fifty cognitively normal elders, 26 patients who met criteria for amnestic mild cognitive impairment, and 22 patients who suffered from mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease were assessed on the UPSA, the ADCS-ADL, and a battery of neurocognitive tests. RESULTS: Patients with mild cognitive impairment had significant impairments on the UPSA but not on the ADCS-ADL. The magnitude of the effect size between the cognitively healthy and the mild cognitive impairment group for the UPSA was large (d=0.86). A strong and significant relationship was observed between cognitive performances in speed (R(2)=0.37), episodic memory (R(2)=0.10), and semantic processing (R(2)=0.03) and UPSA score using multiple regression models. The psychometric properties of the UPSA were acceptable, as were its sensitivity and specificity in contrasts between cognitively normal elders and patients with mild cognitive impairment and between the latter group and patients with Alzheimer's disease. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that performance-based measures of function may be a sensitive tool in studies of Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment and suggest the need for a reconceptualization of the relationship between cognition and function in mild cognitive impairment so that they can be usefully aligned.

Calcium signaling in neurodegeneration.

Calcium is a key signaling ion involved in many different intracellular and extracellular processes ranging from synaptic activity to cell-cell communication and adhesion. The exact definition at the molecular level of the versatility of this ion has made overwhelming progress in the past several years and has been extensively reviewed. In the brain, calcium is fundamental in the control of synaptic activity and memory formation, a process that leads to the activation of specific calcium-dependent signal transduction pathways and implicates key protein effectors, such as CaMKs, MAPK/ERKs, and CREB. Properly controlled homeostasis of calcium signaling not only supports normal brain physiology but also maintains neuronal integrity and long-term cell survival. Emerging knowledge indicates that calcium homeostasis is not only critical for cell physiology and health, but also, when deregulated, can lead to neurodegeneration via complex and diverse mechanisms involved in selective neuronal impairments and death. The identification of several modulators of calcium homeostasis, such as presenilins and CALHM1, as potential factors involved in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease, provides strong support for a role of calcium in neurodegeneration. These observations represent an important step towards understanding the molecular mechanisms of calcium signaling disturbances observed in different brain diseases such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Huntington's diseases.

Initial characterization of Chlamydophila (Chlamydia) pneumoniae cultured from the late-onset Alzheimer brain.

Previous studies from this laboratory provided evidence that the intracellular bacterial pathogen Chlamydophila (Chlamydia) pneumoniae is present in the late-onset Alzheimer's disease (AD) brain. Here we report culture of the organism from two AD brain samples, each of which originated from a different geographic region of North America. Culturable organisms were detectable after one and two passages in HEp-2 cells for the two samples. Both isolates, designated Tor-1 and Phi-1, were demonstrated to be authentic C. pneumoniae using PCR assays targeting the C. pneumoniae-specific genes Cpn0695, Cpn1046, and tyrP. Assessment of inclusion morphology and quantitation of infectious yields in epithelial (HEp-2), astrocytic (U-87 MG), and microglial (CHME-5) cell lines demonstrated an active, rather than a persistent, growth phenotype for both isolates in all host cell types. Sequencing of the omp1 gene from each isolate, and directly from DNA prepared from several additional AD brain tissue samples PCR-positive for C. pneumoniae, revealed genetically diverse chlamydial populations. Both brain isolates carry several copies of the tyrP gene, a triple copy in Tor-1, and predominantly a triple copy in Phi-1 with a minor population component having a double copy. This observation indicated that the brain isolates are more closely related to respiratory than to vascular/atheroma strains of C. pneumoniae.

Therapeutic potential of resveratrol in Alzheimer's disease.

Several epidemiological studies indicate that moderate consumption of red wine is associated with a lower incidence of dementia and Alzheimer's disease. Red wine is enriched in antioxidant polyphenols with potential neuroprotective activities. Despite scepticism concerning the bioavailability of these polyphenols, in vivo data have clearly demonstrated the neuroprotective properties of the naturally occurring polyphenol resveratrol in rodent models for stress and diseases. Furthermore, recent work in cell cultures and animal models has shed light on the molecular mechanisms potentially involved in the beneficial effects of resveratrol intake against the neurodegenerative process in Alzheimer's disease.

Amyloid-beta peptide degradation in cell cultures by mycoplasma contaminants.

BACKGROUND: Cell cultures have become an indispensable tool in Alzheimer's disease research for studying amyloid-beta (Abeta) metabolism. It is estimated that up to 35% of cell cultures in current use are infected with various mycoplasma species. In contrast with common bacterial and fungal infections, contaminations of cell cultures with mycoplasmas represent a challenging issue in terms of detectability and prevention. Mycoplasmas are the smallest and simplest self-replicating bacteria and the consequences of an infection for the host cells are variable, ranging from no apparent effect to induction of apoptosis. FINDINGS: Here we present evidence that mycoplasmas from a cell culture contamination are able to efficiently and rapidly degrade extracellular Abeta. As a result, we observed no accumulation of Abeta in the conditioned medium of mycoplasma-positive cells stably transfected with the amyloid-beta precursor protein (APP). Importantly, eradication of the mycoplasma contaminant - identified as M. hyorhinis - by treatments with a quinolone-based antibiotic, restored extracellular Abeta accumulation in the APP-transfected cells. CONCLUSION: These data show that mycoplasmas degrade Abeta and thus may represent a significant source of variability when comparing extracellular Abeta levels in different cell lines. On the basis of these results, we recommend assessment of mycoplasma contaminations prior to extracellular Abeta level measurements in cultured cells.

A polymorphism in CALHM1 influences Ca2+ homeostasis, Abeta levels, and Alzheimer's disease risk.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a genetically heterogeneous disorder characterized by early hippocampal atrophy and cerebral amyloid-beta (Abeta) peptide deposition. Using TissueInfo to screen for genes preferentially expressed in the hippocampus and located in AD linkage regions, we identified a gene on 10q24.33 that we call CALHM1. We show that CALHM1 encodes a multipass transmembrane glycoprotein that controls cytosolic Ca(2+) concentrations and Abeta levels. CALHM1 homomultimerizes, shares strong sequence similarities with the selectivity filter of the NMDA receptor, and generates a large Ca(2+) conductance across the plasma membrane. Importantly, we determined that the CALHM1 P86L polymorphism (rs2986017) is significantly associated with AD in independent case-control studies of 3404 participants (allele-specific OR = 1.44, p = 2 x 10(-10)). We further found that the P86L polymorphism increases Abeta levels by interfering with CALHM1-mediated Ca(2+) permeability. We propose that CALHM1 encodes an essential component of a previously uncharacterized cerebral Ca(2+) channel that controls Abeta levels and susceptibility to late-onset AD.

Chlamydophila (Chlamydia) pneumoniae infection of human astrocytes and microglia in culture displays an active, rather than a persistent, phenotype.

BACKGROUND: The intracellular pathogen Chlamydia pneumoniae can cause persistent infections during which its morphologic, molecular, and pathogenic characteristics differ importantly from those of active infection. This bacterium was identified within astrocytes and microglia in the brain of late-onset Alzheimer disease patients. We investigated whether infection of these two host cell types displays an active or persistent growth phenotype. METHODS: The human astrocytoma and microglioma cell lines U-87 MG and CHME-5 (respectively) and the human epithelial cell line HEp-2 were infected by the standard method with C pneumoniae strain AR-39. Cultures were harvested at 24, 48, and 72 hours postinfection and subjected to analysis of inclusion morphology. DNA and RNA were prepared from portions of each infected culture sample and analyzed for relative chromosome accumulation and presence or absence of several specific bacterial mRNAs. RESULTS: Astrocytes and microglial cells infected in vitro with C pneumoniae displayed inclusions that were indistinguishable from those characteristic of active infection of the standard HEp-2 host cell line. Real time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) showed that the relative accumulation of chlamydial chromosome over time during infection of these two cell lines also was virtually identical to that in actively infected HEp-2 cells. Reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR) analyses showed that mRNA from ftsK, pyk, and other chlamydial genes whose expression is abrogated during persistent infection were easily identifiable in infected CHME-5 and U-87 MG cells. CONCLUSIONS: In cultured human astrocytes and microglia, C pneumoniae displays an active, not a persistent, growth phenotype. This indicates normal passage through the developmental cycle with its probable concomitant destruction by lysis of some portion of host cells at the termination of that cycle.

Chlamydophila (Chlamydia) pneumoniae in the Alzheimer's brain.

We assessed the presence and characteristics of the intracellular pathogen Chlamydophila (Chlamydia) pneumoniae in brain-tissue samples from 25 patients with late-onset Alzheimer's disease (AD) and 27 non-AD control individuals. 20/27 AD patients, but only 3/27 controls, were PCR-positive in multiple assays targetting the Cpn1046 and Cpn0695 genes. Culture of the organism from brain-tissue homogenate from one AD patient, and assessment of various chlamydial transcripts in RNA preparations from several patients, demonstrated that the organisms were viable and metabolically active in those samples. Immunohistochemical analyses showed that astrocytes, microglia, and neurons all served as host cells for C. pneumoniae in the AD brain, and that infected cells were found in close proximity to both neuritic senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the AD brain. These observations confirm and significantly extend our earlier study suggesting that this unusual pathogen may play a role in the neuropathogenesis characteristic of AD.

Detection of nucleotide variability in rpoB in both rifampin-sensitive and rifampin-resistant strains of Chlamydia trachomatis.

A 656-bp PCR fragment from rpoB was sequenced from five rifampin-resistant Chlamydia trachomatis variants selected in vitro from a wild-type parent with a surprising level of genetic variability in this region. Three variants (MIC, 4 microg/ml) showed Ala522-->Val in cluster I (codons 507 to 533), which harbors mutations in most rifampin-resistant bacteria. Two high-level resistance variants (MICs, 64 and 256 microg/ml) showed His526-->Tyr in cluster I with additional genetic variation, some of which resulted in amino acid substitutions. None of the latter was situated in clusters related to rifampin resistance in other bacteria.