Cathelicidin Treatment Silences Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition Involved in Pulmonary Fibrosis in a Murine Model of Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis.

Pulmonary fibrosis is becoming an increasingly common pathology worldwide. Unfortunately, this disorder is characterized by a bad prognosis: no treatment is known, and the survival rate is dramatically low. One of the most frequent reasons for pulmonary fibrosis is hypersensitivity pneumonitis (HP). As the main mechanism of pulmonary fibrosis is a pathology of the repair of wounded pulmonary epithelium with a pivotal role in epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), we assumed that EMT silencing could prevent disease development. Because of several biological features including wound healing promotion, an ideal candidate for use in the treatment of pulmonary fibrosis seems to be cathelicidin. The aim of the studies was to understand the influence of cathelicidin on the EMT process occurring during lung fibrosis development in the course of HP. Cathelicidin's impact on EMT was examined in a murine model of HP, wherein lung fibrosis was induced by chronic exposure to extract of Pantoea agglomerans (SE-PA) by real-time PCR and Western blotting. Studies revealed that mouse exposure to cathelicidin did not cause any side changes in the expression of investigated genes/proteins. Simultaneously, cathelicidin administered together or after SE-PA decreased the elevated level of myofibroblast markers (Acta2/α-smooth muscle actin, Cdh2/N-cadherin, Fn1/Fibronectin, Vim/vimentin) and increased the lowered level of epithelial markers (Cdh1/E-cadherin, Ocln/occludin). Cathelicidin provided with SE-PA or after cessation of SE-PA inhalations reduced the expression of EMT-associated factors (Ctnnd1/ß-catenin, Nfkb1/NFκB, Snail1/Snail, Tgfb1/TGFß1 Zeb1/ZEB1, Zeb2/ZEB2) elevated by P. agglomerans. Cathelicidin's beneficial impact on the expression of genes/proteins involved in EMT was observed during and after the HP development; however, cathelicidin was not able to completely neutralize the negative changes. Nevertheless, significant EMT silencing in response to cathelicidin suggested the possibility of its use in the prevention/treatment of pulmonary fibrosis.

A Scoping Analysis of Cathelicidin in Response to Organic Dust Exposure and Related Chronic Lung Illnesses.

Over two billion people worldwide are exposed to organic dust, which can cause respiratory disorders. The discovery of the cathelicidin peptide provides novel insights into the lung's response to organic dust; however, its role in the lung's response to organic dust exposure and chronic lung diseases remains limited. We conducted a scoping review to map the current evidence on the role of cathelicidin LL-37/CRAMP in response to organic dust exposure and related chronic lung diseases: hypersensitivity pneumonitis (HP), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma. We included a total of n = 53 peer-reviewed articles in this review, following the process of (i) a preliminary screening; (ii) a systematic MEDLINE/PubMed database search; (iii) title, abstract and full-text screening; (iv) data extraction and charting. Cathelicidin levels were shown to be altered in all clinical settings investigated; its pleiotropic function was confirmed. It was found that cathelicidin contributes to maintaining homeostasis and participates in lung injury response and repair, in addition to exerting a positive effect against microbial load and infections. In addition, LL-37 was found to sustain continuous inflammation, increase mucus formation and inhibit microorganisms and corticosteroids. In addition, studies investigated cathelicidin as a treatment modality, such as cathelicidin inhalation in experimental HP, which had positive effects. However, the primary focus of the included articles was on LL-37's antibacterial effect, leading to the conclusion that the beneficial LL-37 activity has not been adequately examined and that further research is required.

Mycobiota and mycotoxins in various kinds of vegetables and fruits as potential health risk factors for consumers - summary of a multiyear study.

INTRODUCTION: Between 2015-2020, the concentrations and diversity of filamentous fungi as well as the levels of mycotoxins in 4 classes of vegetables and fruits were studied in samples from farms located in eastern Poland. The short communication summarizes the results with the use of statistical analysis and indicates the potential health hazards associated with the consumption of the produce contaminated with fungi and/or mycotoxins. The concentrations of filamentous fungi in all examined samples were moderate (2.813 - 4.146 log10 CFU g -1). The highest values were noted in root vegetables, whereas the lowest values in fruit vegetables. The mycobiota revealed a marked biodiversity (67 species and 33 genera). Penicillium and Fusarium prevailed in the mycobiota of root vegetables, whereas Cladosporium and Alternaria in the remaining classes. Most of identified species (88.1%) were described as potentially pathogenic. The importance of mycotoxins as a potential health risk factor for vegetable consumers, was confirmed by the detection of a high prevalence (>55%) of total aflatoxin (AFT). The level of AFT in berry fruits was significantly higher than in other classes. The high prevalence (58.5%) of deoxynivalenol was noted in raspberries. CONCLUSIONS: Filamentous fungi present in the examined vegetables and fruits may pose a potential health risk for consumers due to a high prevalence of potentially pathogenic species, mostly those producing mycotoxins.

Mycobiota of berry fruits - levels of filamentous fungi and mycotoxins, composition of fungi, and analysis of potential health risk for consumers.

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to determine the presence, concentration and generic composition of filamentous fungi. Selected mycotoxins were also determined: total aflatoxins and deoxynivalenol. MATERIAL AND METHODS: In 2017-2018, 40 samples of strawberry fruits and 40 samples of red raspberry fruits were collected. In 2019-2020, 37 samples of fresh strawberry fruits and 41 samples of fresh red raspberry fruits were collected on conventional farms located in eastern Poland and were subjected to mycological examination. The concentration and species composition of filamentous fungi were determined by the method of plate dilutions on malt agar. The isolated strains were identified using macroscopic and microscopic methods. Samples were also analysed for the presence of aflatoxin B1, total aflatoxin and deoxynivalenol using ELISA tests. RESULTS: The median concentrations of fungi were moderate or low: 3.079 and 3.491 log10 CFU g-1 for strawberries and raspberries, respectively. Fungi of the genus Cladosporium prevailed in the mycobiota of berry fruits, accounting for 84.3% of total isolates in raspberries and 34.8% in strawberries. The occurrence of total aflatoxins was detected in the majority of tested samples (73.2% in raspberries and 70.3% in strawberries) but never exceeded the level of 4.0 µg kg-1 assumed as safe. Deoxynivalenol has been detected only in raspberries with the prevalence of 58.5%. Its median concentration was 242.0 µg kg-1 and in 7 out of 41 samples (17.0%) exceeded the level of 750.0 µg kg-1, assumed as safe. CONCLUSIONS: Filamentous fungi and mycotoxins occurred in the examined berries at levels that mostly do not represent a health risk for immunocompetent people, but might pose such risk for immuno-compromised and/or atopic consumers.

Timber-colonizing gram-negative bacteria as potential causative agents of respiratory diseases in woodworkers.

OCCURRENCE: Gram-negative bacteria occur commonly in the inner tissues of stored coniferous and deciduous timber, showing a marked variation in numbers. The greatest maximal numbers are found in the sapwood of coniferous timber. The common constituents of the Gram-negative biota are potentially pathogenic species of Enterobacteriaceae family of the genera Rahnella, Pantoea, Enterobacter, and Klebsiella. The air of wood-processing facilities is polluted with the wood-borne Gram-negative bacteria and produced by them endotoxin, as demonstrated worldwide by numerous studies. EFFECTS: There are three potential pathways of the pathogenic impact of wood-borne Gram-negative bacteria on exposed woodworkers: allergic, immunotoxic, and infectious. Allergic impact has been underestimated for a long time with relation to Gram-negative bacteria. Hopefully, the recent demonstration of the first documented case of hypersensitivity pneumonitis (HP) in woodworkers caused by Pantoea agglomerans which developed in extremely large quantities in birch sapwood, would speed up finding of new wood-related cases of HP caused by Gram-negative bacteria. The second pathway is associated with endotoxin, exerting strong immunotoxic (excessively immunostimulative) action. It has been demonstrated that endotoxin is released into wood dust in the form of nano-sized microvesicles, by peeling off the outer membrane of bacteria. Endotoxin microvesicles are easily inhaled by humans together with dust because of small dimensions and aerodynamic shape. Afterwards, they cause a nonspecific activation of lung macrophages, which release numerous inflammatory mediators causing an inflammatory lung reaction, chest tightness, fever, gas exchange disorders, and bronchospasm, without radiographic changes. The resulting disease is known as "Organic Dust Toxic Syndrome" or "toxic pneumonitis." The potential third pathway of pathogenic impact is infection. The suspected species is Klebsiella pneumoniae that may occur commonly in wood dust; however, until now this pathway has not been confirmed. CONCLUSION: Summarizing, Gram-negative bacteria-inhabiting timber should be considered, besides filamentous fungi and actinobacteria, as important risk factors of occupational disease in woodworkers that could be either HP with allergenic background or toxic pneumonitis elicited by endotoxin.

Levels of filamentous fungi and selected mycotoxins in leafy and fruit vegetables and analysis of their potential health risk for consumers.

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to determine the presence, concentration and generic composition of filamentous fungi. Considering the significant role of mycotoxins in the pathogenicity of fungal contaminants of vegetables, the scope of the study was extended by determination of aflatoxins and deoxynivalenol. MATERIAL AND METHODS: In the years 2019-2020, samples of vegetables (lettuce, spinach, tomato, red pepper) collected on conventional farms located in eastern Poland were subjected to mycological examination. The concentration and species composition of filamentous fungi were determined by the method of plate dilutions on malt agar. The isolated strains were identified with the use of macroscopic and microscopic methods. Samples were also analyzed for the presence of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), total aflatoxin (AFT) and deoxynivalenol (DON) using the immunoenzymatic ELISA method. RESULTS: The median concentrations of filamentous fungi ranged from 2.778-3.204 log10 CFU g -1. Overall, 40 fungal species were identified in the examined vegetables, of which 38 are classified as potentially pathogenic for humans. The mean prevalence values for AFB1 and AFT were moderate or high (16.0-60.0% and 57.8-75.6%, respectively) and very low for DON (0-2.2%). The median concentrations of filamentous fungi, AFB1 and AFT were distinctly greater in leafy vegetables than on non-leafy tomato and pepper fruits, and the differences were highly significant (P<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The levels of filamentous fungi and mycotoxins in Polish vegetables could be classified as moderate or low. The abundant presence of species with various pathogenic abilities may pose a risk for some categories of people consuming raw vegetables, mostly for immuno-compromised persons or atopics susceptible to food allergy caused by ingested moulds.

Beneficial impact of cathelicidin on hypersensitivity pneumonitis treatment-In vivo studies.

Cathelicidin (CRAMP) is a defence peptide with a wide range of biological responses including antimicrobial, immunomodulatory and wound healing. Due to its original properties the usefulness of CRAMP in the treatment of pulmonary fibrosis was assessed in a murine model of hypersensitivity pneumonitis (HP). The studies were conducted on mouse strain C57BL/6J exposed to a saline extract of Pantoea agglomerans cells (HP inducer). Cathelicidin was administered in the form of an aerosol during and after HP development. Changes in the composition of immune cell populations (NK cells, macrophages, lymphocytes: Tc, Th, Treg, B), were monitored in lung tissue by flow cytometry. Extracellular matrix deposition (collagens, hydroxyproline), the concentration of cytokines involved in inflammatory and the fibrosis process (IFNγ, TNFα, TGFß1, IL1ß, IL4, IL5, IL10, IL12α, IL13) were examined in lung homogenates by the ELISA method. Alterations in lung tissue morphology were examined in mouse lung sections stained with haematoxylin and eosin as well as Masson trichrome dyes. The performed studies revealed that cathelicidin did not cause any negative changes in lung morphology/structure, immune cell composition or cytokines production. At the same time, CRAMP attenuated the immune reaction induced by mice chronic exposure to P. agglomerans and inhibited hydroxyproline and collagen deposition in the lung tissue of mice treated with bacteria extract. The beneficial effect of CRAMP on HP treatment was associated with restoring the balance in quantity of immune cells, cytokines production and synthesis of extracellular matrix components. The presented study suggests the usefulness of cathelicidin in preventing lung fibrosis; however, cathelicidin was not able to reverse pathological changes completely.

COVID 19 - Possible interrelations with respiratory comorbidities caused by occupational exposure to various hazardous bioaerosols. Part II. Clinical course, diagnostics, treatment and prevention.

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVE: The course of COVID-19 caused by the SARS-CoV-2 may be aggravated by bioaerosols containing other viruses, bacteria, and fungi, occurring mainly in the occupational environment. Hence, the diagnostics and treatment of COVID-19 should address such a possibility in the anamnesis, treatment and final recommendations for avoiding of adverse exposure. ABBREVIATED DESCRIPTION OF THE STATE OF KNOWLEDGE: As SARS-CoV-2 attacks primarily the respiratory system and the severe manifestation of COVID-19 is interstitial pneumonia, diagnostics should include the following clinical and laboratory examinations: chest X-ray; high resolution computed tomography (HRCT); pulmonary function tests; arterial-blood gas test; genetic tests for the presence of SARS-CoV-2, in the future with the use of highly specific and sensitive nano-based biosensors; tests for the presence of specific immunity against the antigens of microorganisms causing other infectious or allergic pulmonary diseases (in the case of anamnestic indications). Because an universally accepted treatment for COVID-19 does not exist, the hitherto prescribed antiviral and immune-modulating drugs should be used be with caution. In many cases, a better alternative could be a safe supportive therapy, such as supplementation of the diet with probiotics, prebiotics, vitamins and microelements. SUMMARY: The most important preventive measures against COVID-19 should include: vaccination; the use of filter or surgical masks; disinfection and sterilization; maintaining of well-functioning ventilation and air conditioning systems; reduction of the community air pollution which has been identified as an important factor increasing the COVID-19 severity. In the choice of preventive measures, the above should be considered for their potential efficacy against other bioaerosols as potential disease-aggravating agents.

COVID 19 - Possible interrelations with respiratory comorbidities caused by occupational exposure to various hazardous bioaerosols. Part I. Occurrence, epidemiology and presumed origin of the pandemic.

The occupational bioaerosols containing viruses, bacteria, fungi, microbial toxins and plant or animal particles, may evoke infectious, allergic or immunotoxic diseases which may co-exist as comorbidities with COVID-19 and exacerbate the course of disease. They include hypersensitivity pneumonitis (HP) caused mostly by bacteria, fungi, and particles containing animal proteins, and immunotoxic diseases such as organic dust toxic syndrome (ODTS) and byssinosis, caused mostly by bacterial and fungal toxins. The two most probable scenarios of possible interrelations between these three comorbidities (CM) and COVID-19 are: 1) 'Triggering' - when infection with SARS-CoV-2 triggers severe CM after bioaerosol exposure; 2) 'Reverse triggering' when exposure to bioaerosol exacerbates a symptomless or mild course of COVID-19, and evokes a severe disease. The occupations mostly endangered by COVID-19 as the result of exposure to SARS-CoV-2 bioaerosol, or to other bioaerosols which may exacerbate this disease, include: health care workers, social workers, breeders of fur animals, slaughterhouse workers, workers engaged in the processing and selling of seafood, and probably also agricultural workers, mainly in the developing countries. The authors present a hypothesis for the origin of the present pandemic. It assumes that a mild form of the present SARS-CoV-2 that is supposedly circulating among the Chinese population in the eastern part of the country, mutated under the influence of as yet unknown factor(s) present in the Chinese seafood markets, probably component(s) of bioaerosols, into the virulent and highly contagious form, known as the present SARS-CoV-2, under a scenario similar to that the authors have named 'Reverse triggering'.

Toxoplasma gondii infection in slaughtered pigs and cattle in Poland: seroprevalence, molecular detection and characterization of parasites in meat.

BACKGROUND: Toxoplasma gondii infection may pose a severe medical problem especially in a congenital form and as an acquired infection in immunocompromised persons. Raw and undercooked meat of slaughtered animals is regarded as an important source of parasite infection; however, data concerning this issue in Poland are still insufficient. The aim of this study was to estimate the prevalence of T. gondii infection in pigs and cattle slaughtered for human consumption in Poland using serological and molecular methods. METHODS: Sera of 3111 pigs and 2411 cattle from 16 regions (voivodeships) of the country were examined for the presence of anti-T. gondii IgG using the direct agglutination test (DAT). Pepsin-digested samples of diaphragm and heart of seropositive animals were examined for the presence of T. gondii DNA (B1 gene) by nested PCR and real-time PCR, while non-digested samples were only examined by nested PCR. The B1 gene DNA samples were genotyped at 11 genetic markers using multilocus nested PCR-RFLP (Mn-PCR-RFLP) and sequencing. RESULTS: Seropositive DAT results were found in 11.9% of pigs and 13.0% of cattle. The highest seroprevalence was found in pigs from Podkarpackie (32.6%) and in cattle from Mazowieckie (44.6%). Data analysis showed that cattle > 5-10 years-old, as well as cattle and pigs from small farms, and pigs from farms with open production systems, had higher odds of testing seropositive (P < 0.05). Among the examined tissue samples, positive PCR results were found in samples from 12.2% and 10.2% of seropositive pigs and cattle, respectively. Among the samples successfully genotyped by Mn-PCR-RFLP and sequenced, four samples were identified as T. gondii type II and one sample as type I. CONCLUSIONS: The presence of T. gondii antibodies in a substantial proportion of examined pigs and cattle as well as the detection of parasite DNA in their tissues highlight a potential health risk to the consumers in Poland.

Potential sources of infection with selected zoonotic agents in the veterinary work environment - pilot studies.

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVE: The problem of occupational biohazards is very important, especially in the field of agriculture and in human and veterinary medicine. The aim of the study was to determine the potential sources of infection in veterinary professionals with selected zoonotic agents, including: Toxoplasma gondii, Giardia duodenalis, Leptospira spp., Cryptosporidium spp. and Coxiella burnetii. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A total of 50 air samples from barns, piggeries and veterinary surgeries were examined for the presence of Leptospira spp. and C. burnetii DNA. Serum samples of 86 pigs and 80 cows were tested for the presence of antibodies to Leptospira spp. and to phase I and II C. burnetii antigens. Serum of 70 cats were tested for the presence of antibodies to T. gondii and 65 samples of cat faeces for the presence of T. gondii oocysts. The presence of G. duodenalis and Cryptosporidium spp. were examined in 50 of dog faeces and 50 of bovine faeces samples. RESULTS: DNA of Leptospira spp. was detected in 2 air samples from the piggeries (4%). C. burnetii DNA was not found in any sample. Anti-Leptospira spp. antibodies were detected in 51 (59.3%) of examined pigs. Neither anti-Leptospira spp. nor anti-C. burnetii antibodies were found among samples of bovine serum. Anti-T. gondii antibodies was found in 52 cat serum samples (74.3%). Among samples of cat faeces, no T. gondii oocysts were detected. In one sample of cattle stool (2%), G. duodenalis was detected and in another (2%) - Cryptosporidium spp. G. duodenalis was detected in 7 samples (14%) and Cryptosporidium spp. in 2 samples (2%) of dog faeces. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study demonstrate the potential risk of infection with Leptospira spp. in veterinarians working with pigs. Veterinarians could be also be at risk of infection with T. gondii and G. duodenalis.

Pantoea agglomerans chronic exposure induces epithelial-mesenchymal transition in human lung epithelial cells and mice lungs.

Pantoea agglomerans is gram-negative bacteria widely distributed in nature. It predominates in inhalable dust from grain, herbs, and flax, and was identified as the most important cause of hypersensitivity pneumonitis (HP) in eastern Poland. To better understand the molecular mechanism of HP development studies focused on the interactions between P. agglomerans and alveolar epithelial cells as well as lung tissue with particular emphasis on the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). The studies were conducted on human normal lung epithelial NL20 cells and mice strain C57BL/6J. Cells and mice underwent chronic exposure to saline extract of P. agglomerans (SE-PA). Morphological changes were evaluated under light microscopy, the concentration of fibrosis markers was examined by the ELISA method, while the expression of genes involved in EMT was evaluated by RealTime PCR. During incubation with SE-PA epithelial cells underwent conversion and assumed fibroblast phenotype characterized by a decrease in epithelial cells markers (CDH1, CLDN1, JUP) and increase in mesenchymal cells markers (FN1, VIM, CDH2). Mice lungs collected after 14 days of SE-PA treatment revealed inflammation with marked lymphocytes infiltration. The intensified inflammatory process accompanied by increased proliferation of fibrous connective tissue was noted in mice lungs after 28 days of SE-PA exposure. Histological changes correlated with an increase of fibrosis markers (hydroxyproline, collagens), downregulation of epithelial markers (Cdh1, Cldn1, Jup, Ocln) and upregulation of myofibroblasts markers (Acta2, Cdh2, Fn1, Vim). Obtained results revealed SE-PA ability to induce EMT in human lung epithelial cells and mice lung tissue, with the scale of changes proportional to the time of treatment.

Acute hypersensitivity pneumonitis in woodworkers caused by inhalation of birch dust contaminated with Pantoea agglomerans and Microbacterium barkeri.

CASE DESCRIPTION: Five workers (2 males and 3 females) employed in a furniture factory located in eastern Poland developed hypersensitivity pneumonitis (HP) after the pine wood used for furniture production was replaced by birch wood. All of them reported onset of respiratory and general symptoms (cough, shortness of breath, general malaise) after inhalation exposure to birch dust, showed crackles at auscultation, ground-glass attenuations in HRCT examination, and lymphocytosis in the BAL examination. The diagnosis of acute HP was set in 4 persons and the diagnosis of subacute HP in one. IDENTIFICATION OF SPECIFIC ALLERGEN: Samples of birch wood associated with evoking disease symptoms were subjected to microbiological analysis with the conventional and molecular methods. Two bacterial isolates were found to occur in large quantities (of the order 108 CFU/g) in examined samples: Gram-negative bacterium of the species Pantoea agglomerans and a non-filamentous Gram-positive actinobacterium of the species Microbacterium barkeri. In the test for inhibition of leukocyte migration, 4 out of 5 examined patients showed a positive reaction in the presence of P. agglomerans and 2 in the presence of M. barkeri. Only one person showed the presence of precipitins to P. agglomerans and none to M. barkeri. In the inhalation challenge, which is the most relevant allergological test in the HP diagnostics, all patients reacted positively to P. agglomerans and only one to M. barkeri. The results indicate that P. agglomerans developing in birch wood was the main agent causing HP in the workers exposed to the inhalation of dust from this wood, while the etiologic role of M. barkeri is probably secondary. CONCLUSION: The results demonstrate that apart from fungi and filamentous actinobacteria, regarded until recently as causative agents of HP in woodworkers, Gram-negative bacteria and non-filamentous actinobacteria may also elicit disease symptoms in the workers processing wood infected with large amounts of these microorganisms. The results obtained also seem to indicate that cellular-mediated reactions are more significant for causing disease symptoms compared to those that are precipitin-mediated.

Toxoplasma gondii infection in selected species of free-living animals in Poland.

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVE: Free-living animals can play an important role as a reservoir of Toxoplasma gondi;, however, data concerning this issue in Poland are still limited.The aim of study was to assess the occurrence of T. gondii infection by using molecular methods in free-living animals in selected regions of Poland. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Tissues samples of 396 animals (foxes, muskrats, birds, martens, badgers, polecats, raccoons, minks, raccoon dogs, otters, small rodents and insectivores, and grass snakes were collected from various regions of Poland. After samples digestion, DNA was isolated using QIAmp DNA Mini Kit (Qiagen). DNA extraction from small rodents and insectivores samples was performed without digestion. Next, nested PCR (B1 gene) and, for a part of nested PCR positive amplicons, RFLP PCR, were performed according to the method by Grigg and Boothroyd (2001). The other part of nested PCR positive DNA isolates were genotyped using 5 genetic markers: SAG1, SAG2 (5'- and 3'), SAG3, BTUB and GRA6, based on the method by Dubey et al. (2006). These PCR products were sequenced and compared with the NCBI database using Blast. RESULTS: In total, in 50 of the 396 examined animals DNA of T. gondii was detected (12.6%). The highest percentages of positive results in PCR was obtained in martens (40.9%) and badgers (38.5%), lower in birds (27.3%) and the lowest in foxes (7.4%). The RFLP and multilocus PCR analysis showed the dominance of T. gondii clonal type II (or II/III). CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study indicate the frequent T. gondii infection among free-living animals in Poland, especially martens and badgers, which may indirectly indicate that these animals contribute to the spread of the parasite in the sylvatic environment in Poland. The genotyping analysis showed the dominance of T. gondii clonal type II (or II/III).

Detection and Molecular Characteristics of Toxoplasma gondii DNA in Retail Raw Meat Products in Poland.

Raw and undercooked meat are regarded as important sources of Toxoplasma gondii infection of people in Europe; however, data concerning this issue in Poland are still insufficient. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of T. gondii DNA isolated from raw meat products retailed in Poland. The molecular characteristics of detected DNA were also performed. Samples of cured bacon, raw or smoked sausages, ham, and minced meat were examined for the presence of T. gondii DNA. Samples were digested by pepsin solution, followed by the DNA isolation. Nested and real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed based on the amplification of 35-fold-repetitive B1 fragment gene of T. gondii. For selected B1-positive samples, multiplex PCR was performed using SAG1, SAG2 (5'-SAG2 and 3'-SAG2), altSAG2, SAG3, GRA6, BTUB, C29-2, and L358 genetic markers. Amplicons were sequenced and analyzed with NCBI database. Among 3223 examined samples, 175 (5.4%) were PCR positive. The highest percentages of positive results were found for samples originating from south-east regions of Poland-Podkarpackie (17.9%), Malopolskie (12.6%), and Lubelskie (10.8%) (p < 0.001). The percentages of positive results for particular types of meat products-sausages, smoked meat products, ham, and minced meat-ranged from 4.5% to 5.8% and the differences between them were not significant (p > 0.05). Sequence analysis of selected B1-positive samples demonstrated mostly the alleles of clonal type III (49.0%), and less-type II (17.3%), and type I (10.2%) based on nine used genetic markers. The combinations of types I/II or II/III or I/III alleles at different loci were also found in 23.5% of cases. Detection of T. gondii DNA in raw meat products may indicate the potential health threat for consumers in Poland; however, for complete risk assessment of T. gondii infection, the additional studies, including detection of live parasite, are needed.

Study on Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium spp. infection in veterinarians in Poland.

The risk of exposure to zoonotic factors among veterinarians comprises still underestimated problem. Many etiological factors of infectious diseases are so far poorly known, including the way of their transmission from environment to humans and their impact for health. The main aim of the study was to determine the risk of two selected zoonosis infections caused by Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium spp. among occupational group of veterinarians in Poland. Two hundred ninety seven samples of stool were tested for the presence of Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts using Direct Fluorescent Assay (DFA). There were no positive results for Cryptosporidium. The presence of Giardia cysts was found in two samples of faeces (0.67%), confirmed by polymerase chain reaction and sequencing. The risk with regard to the parasites Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium spp. seems to be low among the group of veterinarians.

Optimization of flotation, DNA extraction and PCR methods for detection of Toxoplasma gondii oocysts in cat faeces.

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to compare the effectiveness of selected oocysts concentration methods, DNA extraction protocols and PCR assays targeting the B1 gene, for the development of procedures which would be effective and useful in laboratory practice for the detection of T. gondii in faecal samples from cats. MATERIAL AND METHODS: In order to compare the influence of the flotation fluids on microscopy and PCR detection of T. gondii, saturated solutions of saccharose, MgSO4, ZnSO4 and NaNO3 were used. To determine the sensitivity of PCR tests used: Real time PCR (RT) and nested PCR, water samples spiked with T. gondii tachyzoites and oocysts were tested. DNA was extracted using DNeasy Blood and Tissue Kit (Qiagen) (K1). The same PCR tests were used to assess the efficacy of T. gondii DNA detection in samples of cat faeces spiked with oocysts, using DNA extraction by a K1 set and a K2 set (QIamp DNA Stool Mini Kit, (Qiagen). RESULTS: The initial results showed that NaNO3 was most useful as a flotation fluid due to the lack negative effect on the oocysts and amplification efficacy in PCR. The level of detection for water samples (100 µl) was determined as 100 tachyzoites and 1-50 oocysts in RT, and 2-20 oocysts in nested PCR. The limit of detection (LD) for stool samples (250 mg) spiked with oocysts, where the K1 set was used, determined as 250 and 5 oocysts in RT and nested PCR, respectively. For samples extracted with the K2 set, LD in RT was determined as 1-50 oocysts (depending on the variant) and 50 oocysts in nested PCR. CONCLUSIONS: The most effective methods for detection of T. gondii in cat faeces seem to be centrifugal flotation with NaNO3, followed by DNA extraction with removing of inhibitors (K2 set) and Real Time PCR targeting B1 gene.

Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in cats in southwestern Poland.

OBJECTIVE: An assessment of the prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in cats from southwestern Poland using serology, coproscopy and PCR methods. MATERIAL AND METHODS: In total, 208 cats (139 females and 68 males), aged 0.5-12 years (mean=2.6) from 25 localities in southwestern Poland were examined by indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFAT) to estimate the T. gondii serological status. Faecal samples of 41 cats were examined for the presence of oocysts/DNA T. gondii by microscopy and Real-time/nested PCR. After flotation (with NaNO3), pellets from faecal samples were disrupted by 10 cycles of freezing (liquid nitrogen) and warming. DNA was extracted using QIamp DNA Stool Mini Kit (Qiagen), according to the manufacturer's instruction. RESULTS: The positive results in IFAT for anti-T. gondii IgG and IgM antibodies were found in 143 of 208 tested cats (68.8%). Among positive results, 14.5%, 34.1% and 51.4% were detected in titre ranges 128-512, 1,000-2,000 and ≥ 4,000, respectively. In 23.1% of cat sera anti-T. gondii IgM antibodies were found. The prevalence of anti-Toxoplasma antibodies was significantly greater in older cats (>1 year) (83.5%) than in younger cats (48.3%) (P<0.05), in females (74.1%) than in males (58.8%) (P<0.05), and in cats kept outdoors than indoors (69.7% vs. 16.7%) (P<0.01). Among the 41 faecal samples examined, the presence of structures resembling T. gondii oocysts was found in 2 samples (4.9%), and for one of these samples (2.4% of the total) the result was also confirmed by PCR. CONCLUSIONS: T. gondii infection in domestic cats is highly prevalent in southwestern Poland. Information on the prevalence of infection in cats can be useful for assessing T. gondii environmental contamination and the risk for public health.

Fungal diversity of root vegetables and soil rhizosphere collected from organic and conventional farms in Eastern Poland.

OBJECTIVE: Determination of the concentration and species composition of filamentous fungi in root vegetables (carrots and red beetroots), and the adjacent rhizosphere soil, collected on organic and conventional farms in Eastern Poland. MATERIAL AND METHODS: During the period 2015-2016, a total number of 80 samples of vegetables and 40 samples of soil were examined. From each type of farm, 20 samples of vegetables and 20 samples of the adjacent soil were examined. In addition, the study included 20 samples of vegetables from organic farms and 20 samples of vegetables from conventional farms purchased on the markets in the city of Lublin in Eastern Poland. In order to determine the concentration and species composition of filamentous fungi, both in vegetables and soil, the method of plate dilutions on Malt Agar medium (Difco) with chloramphenicol was used. The study was conducted in two parallel repetitions. Inoculated media were incubated at the temperature of 30° C for 72 hours, then at room temperature for 72 hours. The species composition of fungal flora was determined using macroscopic and microscopic methods, with the help of keys and atlases. RESULTS: It was found that the mean concentration of fungi was higher in vegetables and soil from conventional farms than in those from organic farms. In the case of carrots and soil from conventional farms, this concentration was 4.93 and 5.10 log10 CFU g-1, respectively, whereas from organic farms - respectively, 3.81 and 4.20 log10 CFU g-1. In the case of beetroots and soil from conventional farms, the mean concentrations were also higher compared to organic farms - 5.09 vs. 3.93 and 4.95 vs. 4.23 log10 CFU g-1. In the examined vegetables and rhizosphere soil, 61 species of filamentous fungi were found, of which 12 belonged to the genus Penicillium, 4 to the genus Fusarium, and 2 species each to the genera: Aspergillus, Cladosporium and Trichoderma. As many as 28 (45.9%) fungal species that occurred in vegetables and soil are regarded as pathogenic for humans.