Percutaneous absorption studies after forty years.

The authors review the development of ways to study percuatneous absorption of chemicals and summarize the current status of investigations in this area.

Background on the system of integral evaluation of human exposure to toxic substances in the work and municipal environments.

Exposure to toxic chemicals in the work, natural and home environments is recognised as combined exposure. The system of integral evaluation of human exposure should take account of all toxic substances occurring in all environmental media (air, water, soil and food), and all routes through which they enter the human body. To provide the integral evaluation it is necessary to develop different exposure scenarios based on dose intake or derived values. Following the toxicological criteria, calculated exposure indicators, after their standardisation and aggregation, should be converted into combined exposure indices. The index value will reflect the level of combined exposure.

The influence of exogenous antioxidants and physical exercise on some parameters associated with production and removal of free radicals.

Metabolic processes generate chemically active forms of oxygen, among which a prominent role is played by the superoxide ion. Cells are equipped with defence systems against the effects of superoxide radicals, superoxide dismutase is the most important one. The organism depends on the delivery of exogenous antioxidants, like selenium, vitamins E and C. Physical exercise triggers the production of superoxide radicals, which can at least partly be responsible for muscular damage. This work has studied the effect of Protection Zellaktiv (Smith Kline Beecham, Fink Naturarznei GmbH), a preparation containing selenium, vitamins C, E, B2, niacin and beta-carotene on the activities of superoxide dismutase and catalase, levels of glutathione malondialdehyde selenium, iron, zinc, triglicerides, total cholesterol, HDL- and LDL-cholesterol, before and after physical exercise. Muscle status was monitored by the activities of lactic dehydrogenase and creatine kinase. Protecton Zellaktiv was administered orally for one month, the measurements were repeated and the results before and after treatment were compared. It was found that treatment diminished the levels of malondialdehyde and zinc in serum, as well as cholesterol and triglicerides. Physical exercise before treatment decreased the levels of reduced glutatione, zinc and triglycerides. As expected, the levels of selenium were increased by the preparation. Protecton Zellaktiv suppressed the production of malondialdehyde during physical exercise. The preparation had a beneficial effect on lipid levels and it is inferred that lipid peroxidation was suppressed.

Evaluation of regional environmental and health hazards by applying synthetic measures.

Large geographical areas, urban and rural regions of 49 voivodships in Poland, were evaluated from the point of view of existing environmental and health hazards caused by chemical contamination of the environment. Using routine sources of information, we selected four health-related environmental indicators and eight environmental-related health indicators. All indicator values were normalized and then aggregated to synthetic measures of environmental and health hazards, using the taxonometric method. The synthetic measures characterized the urban and rural regions of the entire country and were used for their ranking for remedial purposes. A consistency of environmental and health synthetic measures was found in urban regions (correlation coefficient r = 0.58). The spatial distribution of environmental and health hazards was determined using geo-graphical information system (GIS) methods. The application of kriging and the interpolation of data improved the interpretation of the results. The worst situation was found in the southwest regions of Poland, which are heavily industrialized with a high population density.

A mathematical model for the estimation of nickel internal dose in populations under occupational and environmental exposure.

Using the results of own investigations as well as available literature data an attempt was made to develop a mathematical model for the estimation of nickel internal dose on the basis of nickel concentration in urine.

Environmental determinants of selected family-oriented health indicators.

Based on the levels of environmental contamination and degradation, synthetic measures of environmental hazards in urban and rural regions in Poland were developed. At the same time, negative family health indicators associated with environmental contamination were determined. These indicators included: low birth weight, fraction of deaths with low birth weight, excessive male and female mortality in the 30-64 age group. The study revealed a relationship between synthetic measures of environmental hazards and selected health indicators. This relationship, along with the spatial distribution of areas with the highest index values, should be taken into consideration while planning improvements and preventive activities.

Selected aspects of the population health status in ecological hazard areas in comparison with ecologically "clean area". III. localisation of urban regions with high mortality from all and from the circulatory system diseases.

Territorial localisation of urban regions with particularly high mortality from all diseases and from diseases of the circulatory system in males and females was the aim of the study. Altogether 177 urban regions within ecological hazard areas (EHAs) and 76 urban regions within reference area (RA) were subjected to evaluation. In the group of urban regions in which mortality rate from all diseases exceeded the value of arithmetic mean + 1/2 of standard deviation, 32 urban regions of EHA and 12 of them with RA were selected for assessing male mortality and 44 and 7, respectively, for assessing female mortality. Applying the same criteria 53 and 16 urban regions and 50 and 11 urban regions were identified because of mortality from diseases of the circulatory system in males and females, respectively. It was revealed that urban regions with the highest mortality rates were located in regions of the highest ecological hazard.

Selected aspects of the population health status in ecological hazard areas in comparison with ecologically "clean" area. II. Assessment of spatial distribution of mortality.

On the basis of age adjusted rates of mortality from all diseases and from diseases of the circulatory system in female and male populations living in ecological hazard areas and in ecologically "clean" area, the distributions of the rate values were assessed. In the regions under consideration, urban and rural regions were distinguished. The goodness of fit of the empirical distribution to the normal one was assessed using the following statistical parameters: arithmetic mean, mode, median, standard deviation, coefficient of variation, coefficient of asymmetry, difference between the third and the first quartiles, as well as the Chi2 and lambda-Kolmogorow-Smirnow tests, maximum difference between cumulative distribution functions and standard deviation of differences between empirical and theoretical frequencies. A differentiation in the mean values of age adjusted rates of mortality from both groups of diseases in ecological hazard areas and in "clean" area was indicated particularly in urban female and male populations.

Spatial distribution of negative health indices in ecological hazard areas in Poland.

Spatial distribution of negative health indices (relative risk, synthetic measure) was demonstrated in 27 ecological hazard areas (EHAs) in Poland. For comparison reference areas were selected. The health indices were used for developing a general index of harmfulness characteristic for individual EHA. The health status ranking in EHAs is useful in setting priorities for remediation.

Selected aspects of the population health status in ecological hazard areas in comparison with ecologically "clean" area. I. Methodology for analysing health status based on the routine data collection system.

A proposal for an integrated system of analysis of complex health problems in ecological hazard areas in comparison with reference least polluted area is presented. The proposed procedure can be used in identifying priorities in health promotion.

Plasma prekallikrein levels in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma and liver cirrhosis: a pilot study.

The concentration of plasma prekallikrein (PK) in five patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) has been measured and related to levels in 18 patients with liver cirrhosis (LC) and 30 healthy subjects. It was found that the mean PK level was significantly increased in patients with HCC, while patients with LC demonstrated lower concentrations, as compared with healthy subjects. The results indicate that PK might be useful in screening cirrhotic patients for HCC. Longitudinal studies of PK in a larger group of patients at risk of developing HCC are therefore recommended.

[Lead in the environment of Poland]. / Olów w srodowisku w Polsce.

Lead belongs to those elements which have a great variety of applications in the up-to-date technology. In the form of waste products or automotive wastes it has been brought into a global circulation. The authors attempt to present harmful effects of this "environmental poison" on individual media and human population in Poland. Following published and non-published data, an outline of lead geochemistry, anthropo-genetic sources of lead emission into the environment, concentration of lead in the ambient air, surface water, soil, plants and food, is presented. The data are interpreted on the basis of home maximum allowable concentrations and on the health criteria recommended by international organizations. It was found that the knowledge on the level of pollution of individual environmental media with lead is diversified and incomplete. This hinders a comparable and comprehensive evaluation of lead migration in the natural environment and thus the assessment of exposure magnitude among inhabitants of all regions (voivoships) of the country. Emissions from plants producing and processing non-ferrous metals, industrial waste sites, motor transport especially in central parts of urban and industrial agglomerations, and use of certain mineral fertilizers are recognized as the greatest hazards to the biosphere and human health among all sources of environmental pollution with lead. As appears from the data, the highest level of lead contamination of air, water and soil occurs in the central part of the Upper Silesian Industrial District as well as in the direct vicinity of other plants of non-ferrous metals in Katowice and Legnica voivodships. It was also noted that crops from those agglomerations and from family gardens located near active industrial waste sites or exploited yards may contain amounts of lead exceeding considerably allowable concentrations. It was revealed that in Polish conditions the largest amounts of lead enter children's organism with dirt, dust and food and the smallest with water. Vegetables and potatoes, and in the case of children, milk as well are the main carriers of lead in Polish food, therefore, these products should remain under particular laboratory control. It is acknowledged that preventive measures in areas where the level of environmental pollution with lead is not fully recognized, biological monitoring of lead concentrations in the blood of children, the most sensitive group of population, should be initiated.

[Reference levels of lead in children from clean regions of Poland]. / Poziomy referencyjne olowiu u dzieci z czystych rejonów Polski.

Following the determination of blood lead levels in children of 8-10 age group, living in selected clean regions of Poland, a statistical analysis of results was carried out. On the basis of this analysis reference values were proposed. The values are characteristic for the whole area of Poland and they should be applied in all studies pertaining to the assessment of exposure to lead among children. A border concentration of lead in blood equal to 14 micrograms/dl was proposed as a reference one for individual examinations. For group examinations reference concentrations of 50 and 90 percentiles should not exceed 8 micrograms/dl and 12 micrograms/dl, respectively.

Identification and evaluation of nickel intake sources.

The level of nickel in a full-day diet, drinking water and complementary liquids was measured in groups of persons occupationally and environmentally exposed to this element. Both adults and children (in preschool and school age) living in industrial and recreation areas were considered. Concentrations of nickel in the occupational and ambient air were also taken into account. Measurement data were used for calculating the intake and uptake of nickel in the investigated groups. It was found that contaminated air at workplaces under occupational exposure, and food under environmental exposure were the main sources of the nickel intake.

[Chief toxic effects associated with environmental pollution in Poland based on health status indices of the general population]. / Glówne efekty toksyczne zwiazane z zanieczyszczeniem srodowiska w Polsce na tle wskazników stanu zdrowia populacji generalnej.

Poor health status of general population in Poland together with existing trends were discussed on the basis of health indices and in comparison with other European countries. Examples of health effects related to environmental pollution in Poland were presented, and some vital preventive activities for improving the situation were proposed.

Health risk assessment in children exposed to lead compounds in the vicinity of mine-smelter plant "Orzel Bialy".

Investigations of environmental exposure to lead were performed in 1028 children from a very polluted industrial region affected by emissions from the lead mine and smelter plant "Orzel Bialy". A group of 629 children was used as the reference population from non-polluted parts of Poland. The lead blood concentrations in exposed groups of children were considerably higher than in the reference group and 26% of younger children and 11% of older children exceeded the safe limit value of 20 micrograms/dl. Children with the highest health risk in which Pb-B amounted to 40-50 micrograms/dl (4.2% of exposed children) were recommended for immediate medical examination. As preventive measures, improvement of hygienic life conditions and frequent trips of exposed children to non-polluted areas, were recommended which should decrease the internal lead dose.

Development of the aggregation model of adverse environmental and health effects for evaluation of large areas of ecological hazard.

The model of aggregation of 12 parameters describing the environmental and health effects in areas of ecological hazard has been elaborated. The values of particular indices create the characteristic profile useful for selection of dominant environmental problems. The general index of hazard is suitable for establishing priorities among ecological hazard areas.

Caffeine reduces the hepatotoxicity of paracetamol in mice.

Paracetamol causes extensive liver damage when taken in overdose quantities; however, it is less hepatotoxic when administered in combination with caffeine. The present work in mice was undertaken to study the effect of caffeine on mortality rates and biochemical and histological parameters of liver damage after administration of toxic doses of paracetamol. It was found that caffeine markedly increased the survival rate after administration of a dose of paracetamol that was lethal to 50% and 100% of mice, reduced liver damage as assessed by serum glutamic pyruvic and glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase activities, partially prevented the depletion of reduced glutathione and reduced histological changes to the liver accompanying paracetamol intoxication. The results support the possibility that caffeine might be useful for the treatment of paracetamol intoxication in humans.

Essential phospholipids modify immunological functions and reduce experimental atherosclerosis in rabbits.

Atherosclerosis was induced in male mongrel rabbits with a high-fat diet and the influence of essential phospholipids (EPL) on plaque formation, parameters of lipid metabolism and immunological functions was studied. When EPL were added to the high-fat diet there was a significant reduction in the area of atherosclerotic involvement of the aorta. The serum concentration of lipids decreased, often to normal values, and cholesterol esterified with polyunsaturated fatty acids appeared. Normalization of the malonyldialdehyde level in plasma was accompanied by a decrease in the concentration of ascorbate free radicals in blood and liver. The high-fat diet caused a depression of both non-specific and specific immune functions studied. With EPL in the diet the tests showed near normal or normal values. It is inferred from these results that a normal state of the immune system is important for preventing the progress of atherosclerotic changes. This is discussed with reference to the role of some immune cells in the metabolism of lipids and to participation of essential phospholipids in plasma membrane functions.