Femoral condylar fractures in four continental giant breed rabbits.

Four male neutered continental giant rabbits aged between 10 and 30 months were presented with femoral condylar fractures, which developed without an observed traumatic injury. Stabilisation of the condylar fracture was achieved with screw fixation in all cases, which was supplemented with additional fixation in three cases. Complications consequent to the surgical intervention occurred in two cases: a femoral fracture and loss of fixation. Three rabbits were reported to have recovered normal limb function, and the rabbit that developed a femoral fracture as a consequence of its surgical intervention was treated with amputation.

Presentation, treatment and outcome of long-bone fractures in pet rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus).

OBJECTIVES: To describe the incidence, aetiology, characteristics, assessment, management and outcome of long-bone fractures in rabbits presenting to a single institution. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Medical records of pet rabbits diagnosed with long-bone fractures over a 12-year period were analysed. Patient signalment, fracture aetiology, fracture location, fracture description, time from fracture occurrence to veterinary presentation, fixation method, postoperative complications, clinical outcome and follow-up were recorded. RESULTS: Twenty-eight pet rabbits that sustained 30 fractures were included in the study [femoral (n=12), tibial (n=6), metacarpal/metatarsal/phalangeal (n=5), radial and ulnar (n=4) and tarsal (n=3)]. Twenty-one (75%) of the rabbits were less than 2 years of age, including seven (25%) under 6 months of age. Twenty-five fractures had no identifiable cause and five were traumatic. Only one fracture was open. Surgical stabilisation was performed in 22 fractures, four were non-surgically managed, two had the affected limb amputated, one underwent digital amputation and one was euthanased. Postoperative complications occurred in nine fractures [major (n=6), minor (n=3)]. The frequency of complications or attainment of a functional recovery was not notably different between the different methods of fixation. Overall, 24 rabbits recovered, two were euthanased and four underwent limb amputation. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Fractures in rabbits typically occur in young animals and they usually lack an obvious aetiology. The majority of the rabbits treated achieved a functional recovery, although the postoperative complication rate was high in fractures treated surgically (41%).

Cloacal prolapses in reptiles: a retrospective study of 56 cases.

OBJECTIVES: To review the types of cloacal prolapses seen in reptiles and to investigate potential risk factors which may be associated with the presence of a cloacal prolapse. METHOD: Retrospective review of medical records of all reptile cases evaluated at the Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies between 1999 and 2013; only cases which had a history of cloacal prolapse were included in the study. RESULTS: Prolapses were identified in 56 of 3019 (1·9%) reptiles examined over the study period. Prolapses were 3·47 times as likely in chelonians and lizards compared to snakes. There were no statistically significant differences between the prevalence of prolapses in males and females. Females were 7·5 times more likely to present with a true cloacal prolapse involving no other organs compared to males, and were 4·83 times more likely to present with a prolapse of the colon. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: These results suggest that cloacal prolapses are not a common occurrence but that species and sex may both influence the prevalence and type of cases seen.

Gastrointestinal parasitic burdens in UK tortoises: a survey of tortoise owners and potential risk factors.

Despite gastrointestinal parasites being commonly diagnosed in captive tortoises throughout the UK, there is a lack of data regarding the prevalence. The aims of this study were to investigate the prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in tortoises in the UK, and to investigate the factors affecting the prevalence of these parasites. Owners were invited to submit a faecal sample from their tortoise in conjunction with a completed questionnaire covering details of signalment and husbandry. Data from the questionnaires were analysed at the end of the study. Faecal analysis was performed on samples from Testudo hermanni, Testudo graeca and Testudo horsfieldii. This involved examination of direct wet preparations, a modified McMaster technique, passive NaCl flotation and Cryptosporidium staining. Of the 142 samples used, 130 were examined by the first three methods. 49 per cent were positive for one or more parasites. Of the positive samples, 67 per cent were positive for oxyurids, 28 per cent were positive for ascarids and 28 per cent were positive for protozoa (Balantidium, Nyctotherus or flagellates). Only 1/113 (0.8 per cent) samples was positive for Cryptosporidium. The most important risk factors for parasites were sex (F) and length of time (<5 years) in owner's possession. This survey showed that gastrointestinal parasites are frequently detected in the faecal samples of captive tortoises in the UK, but their prevalence may be influenced by various factors including sex, length of time owned, age and species.

The effects of UV light on calcium metabolism in ball pythons (Python regius).

Despite the popularity of keeping snakes in captivity, there has been limited investigation into the effects of UV radiation on vitamin D levels in snakes. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of UV-b radiation on plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 levels and ionised calcium concentrations in ball pythons (Python regius). Blood samples were taken from 14 ball pythons, which had never been exposed to UV-b light, to obtain baseline 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 levels and ionised calcium concentrations. Blood samples were then taken again from the same snakes 70 days later after one group (Group 1, n=6 females) were exposed to UV-b radiation daily, and the other group (Group 2, n=5 males and 3 females) were exposed to no UV-b radiation. Mean±sd 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 levels on day 0 in Group 1 were 197±35 nmol/l, and on day 70 were 203.5±13.8 nmol/l. Mean±sd 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 levels in Group 2 on day 0 were 77.7±41.5 nmol/l, and on day 70 were 83.0±41.9 nmol/l. Mean±sd ionised calcium levels at day 0 were 1.84±0.05 mmol/l for Group 1, and on day 70 were 1.78±0.07 mmol/l. Mean±sd ionised calcium levels at day 0 were 1.79±0.07 mmol/l for Group 2, and on day 70 were 1.81±0.05 mmol/l. No association was demonstrated between exposure to UV-b radiation and plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 and ionised calcium concentrations. These results may provide baseline parameters for future studies in this and other snake species to determine ability to utilise UV-b light for vitamin D production.

The use of negative pressure wound therapy following subcarapacial abscess excision in a tortoise.

A 42-year-old female Testudo graeca was referred with a five-month history of a non-healing carapacial wound. Previous treatment had involved long-term antibiotic therapy and conscious debridement of necrotic tissue. On presentation an extensive deep wound with purulent discharge was visible on the right side of the carapace. A computed tomographic scan was performed to assess the extent of the wound. This revealed a large carapacial deficit with two underlying soft tissue masses. Surgical debridement was performed under general anaesthesia resulting in an even larger defect. Because of the extensive nature of the deficit, negative pressure wound therapy was applied to aid wound healing. A negative pressure of approximately 120 mmHg was maintained and bandages were changed every third day. Wound healing progressed rapidly and a healthy granulation bed was formed within 16 days.

Use of arterial blood gas analysis as a superior method for evaluating respiratory function in pet rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus).

A retrospective study compared invasive (arterial blood gas analysis) and non-invasive (capnography and pulse oximetry) methods of monitoring respiratory function in conscious rabbits. Arterial samples from 50 healthy dwarf lop rabbits, presenting for routine surgical neutering, were analysed on a point-of-care blood gas analysis machine. Reference intervals were obtained for pH (7.35-7.54), PaCO2 (mm Hg) (25.29-40.37), PaO2 (mm Hg) (50.3-98.2), base excess (mmol/l) (6.7-6.5), HCO3 (mmol/l) (17.96-29.41), TCO2 (mmol/l) (18.9-30.5). SaO2 (per cent) (88.8-98.0), Na (mmol/l) (137.6-145.2), K (mmol/l) (3.28-4.87), iCal (mmol/l) (1.64-1.94), glucose (mmol/l) (6.23-10.53), haematocrit (per cent) (23.3-40.2) and haemoglobin (mg/dl) (7.91-13.63). Pulse oximetry (SPO2) and capnography (ETCO2) readings were taken concurrently. There was no statistically significant relationship between SPO2 and SaO2 with a mean difference between SPO2 and SaO2 of 8.22 per cent. There was a statistically significant relationship between ETCO2 vs PaCO2, but a wide range of ETCO2 values were observed for a given PaCO2. The mean difference between these was 16.16 mm Hg. The study has provided reference intervals for arterial blood gas analysis in rabbits and demonstrated that capnography and pulse oximetry readings should not be relied upon in conscious rabbits as a guide to ventilation and oxygenation.

Arterial blood gas parameters in pet rabbits anaesthetized using a combination of fentanyl-fluanisone-midazolam-isoflurane.

OBJECTIVES: Blood gas analysis is a well-recognized method to monitor pulmonary function, blood oxygenation, ventilation and acid-base status during general anaesthesia. The aim of this study was to report blood gas analysis results in pet rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) obtained during general anaesthesia using a portable clinical analyser. METHODS: Thirty-two rabbits were premedicated with 0·2 mL/kg fentanyl and fluanisone. Anaesthesia was induced with 0·2 mg/kg midazolam and maintained with 2% isoflurane in oxygen via endotracheal tube. Arterial blood samples were taken from the central ear artery 10 minutes after induction of anaesthesia. RESULTS: Respiratory acidaemia was observed during anaesthesia. Mean ±sd (range) arterial blood pH was 7·33 ±0·08 (7·15 to 7·48). PaCO2 and PaO2 were, respectively, 55·02 ±10·5 (37·7 to 92·1) mmHg and 370·0 ±120·5 (67 to 561) mmHg. Base excess was 2·8 ±3·6 (-3 to 11) mmol/L, HCO3 was 28·73 ±3·07 (23·7 to 35·4) mmol/L and TCO2 was 30·4 ±3·2 (25 to 37) mmol/L. None of the rabbits developed haematoma during arterial blood collection or ischaemia of the pinna during the hospitalization period. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Arterial blood gas analysis is a safe and easy to perform diagnostic technique that can contribute to improved safety of rabbit anaesthesia, by providing information on the respiratory and metabolic status of the patient.

Partial ear canal ablation and lateral bulla osteotomy in rabbits.

Six lop rabbits were presented with clinical signs of otitis media or externa. The presence of disease was confirmed by computerized tomography examination, with two rabbits suffering from bilateral disease. The rabbits were anaesthetized and underwent surgery of the affected bulla. Rabbits with bilateral disease had a minimum of 2 weeks between procedures. A single vertical incision was made over the base of the vertical canal, which was bluntly dissected free from surrounding tissue. The ventral portion of the vertical canal was removed and a lateral bulla osteotomy was performed. The mucosa at the base of the dorsal vertical canal was apposed and the aural cartilage sutured to form a blind-ending pouch open at the pretragic incisure. Histopathological samples taken from the dorsal margin of the vertical canal yielded subtle and non-specific changes in the six samples submitted. All rabbits were discharged within 48 hours of surgery. The cosmetic outcome was excellent with animals retaining visually normal aural anatomy. The partial ear canal ablation/lateral bulla osteotomy procedure is quick and has a good cosmetic result when performed in rabbits.

Mycobacterium microti infection in two meerkats (Suricata suricatta).

Mycobacterium microti is a member of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTC). M. microti is generally considered a pathogen of small rodents, although sporadic infections in a range of other mammals, including domestic animals and man, have been reported. While many human infections have been associated with immunosuppression, an increasing number of cases are being reported in immunocompetent patients. Two cases of M. microti infection in meerkats (Suricata suricatta) are reported. These are the first cases of mycobacterial disease to be described in meerkats outside Africa.

Calcium and phosphorus values and their derivatives in captive tortoises (Testudo species).

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the relationships between total calcium and phosphorus and ionised calcium and phosphorus values in clinically healthy tortoises. METHODS: Jugular blood samples were obtained from 25 tortoises, as part of a health screen of the population. These comprised Hermann's tortoises, Testudo hermanni boettgeri, spur-thighed tortoises, Testudo graeca ibera, marginated tortoises, Testudo marginata, and horsfield tortoises, Testudo horsfieldi. Plasma from these samples were analysed for total calcium, ionised calcium and phosphorus levels. These samples were taken in the immediate posthibernation period, before the onset of reproductive activity. RESULTS: Females exhibited statistically significantly higher levels of phosphorus. Ionised calcium and total calcium levels were elevated in females compared with males, but this was not statistically significant. Females did have statistically significantly higher calculated solubility indexes and statistically significantly lower ratios compared with males. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: This study has provided an insight into the ratios and solubility indexes in tortoises, and this information may lead to further understanding of the significance of these parameters in chelonians.

Comparison of total calcium, ionised calcium and albumin concentrations in the plasma of captive tortoises (Testudo species).

Plasma total calcium, ionised calcium and albumin levels in Hermann's tortoises (Testudo hermanni), spur-thighed tortoises (Testudo graeca), marginated tortoises (Testudo marginata) and Horsfield's tortoises (Testudo horsfieldi) were investigated. The animals were captive adults maintained under natural unfiltered sunlight in the UK with no dietary sources of cholecalciferol. Analysis of total calcium data showed statistically significant seasonal elevations in females in August compared with March (P=0.003), and statistically significant elevations in females compared with males at all sampling points (March P=0.036, June P=0.003 and August P<0.0001). These differences in values became more prominent as the summer progressed. Albumin values did not appear significantly affected by season. However, males had significantly higher albumin levels than females in the August samples. A correlation between total calcium and ionised calcium was confirmed but there was no correlation between total calcium and albumin values. Total calcium levels were a poor indication of ionised calcium levels, which constituted between 18 and 57 per cent of the total calcium value.

Variations in the concentration of ionised calcium in the plasma of captive tortoises (Testudo species).

The concentration of ionised calcium was measured in the plasma of 13 Hermann's tortoises (Testudo hermanni boettgeri), nine spur-thighed tortoises (Testudo graeca ibera), two marginated tortoises (Testudo marginata) and six Horsfield's tortoises (Testudo horsfieldi) maintained under natural unfiltered sunlight in the UK. The numbers were too small to analyse the differences between the species, sexes or the time of the year statistically, but the concentrations of ionised calcium were generally higher in all the tortoises in the samples taken in August than in the samples taken in March and June.

Plasma concentrations of 25-hydroxycholecalciferol in 22 captive tortoises (Testudo species).

The plasma concentration of 25-hydroxycholecalciferol was measured in 13 adult Hermann's tortoises (Testudo hermanni), seven adult spur-thighed tortoises (Testudo graeca) and two adult marginated tortoises (Testudo marginata) during 2004. They were healthy, of both sexes, and kept in captivity under natural unfiltered sunlight in southern England with no dietary sources of cholecalciferol. Blood samples were taken in March, June and August, and the concentration of 25-hydroxycholecalciferol did not vary significantly with the seasons. However, the concentrations in the female tortoises were always significantly lower than in the males.

Two unusual tumours in a ferret (Mustela putorius furo).

This case report describes the clinical history, diagnosis and treatment of a ferret with a tumour of the right adrenal gland and insulinomas of the pancreas. Histopathology of both lesions confirmed the diagnoses. Clinical signs of the adrenal gland tumour were a swollen vulva, overgrooming, sexual activity and pruritus. The clinical signs suggesting insulinomas were collapse of the ferret, disorientation and ptyalism. A low blood glucose level assisted the diagnosis of insulinomas. This is believed to be the first reported case of concurrent insulinomas and adrenal gland tumour in a ferret in the United Kingdom.