Microplastic pollution in coastal areas of Colombia: Review.

Microplastics are distributed in the environment and are considered emerging pollutants because they are not regulated by legislation. This article aims to know the current state of knowledge regarding microplastic pollution in coastal areas of Colombia. Therefore, a detailed search was carried out in databases such as Scopus, Google Scholar, and university repositories collecting scientific and academic information published between 2000 and March 2022. As a result of the review, the presence of microplastics in coastal areas of Colombia was identified, particularly in the water, sediments, and fish, thus evidencing the contamination in coastal ecosystems, where the Caribbean coast is the area with the highest amount of microplastics in sediments, especially Cartagena (249-1387 particles/m2) and Santa Marta (144-791 particles/m2). It was also found that of 302 species of fish, 7% contained microplastics in the Ciénaga Grande of Santa Marta. In the studies, on the other hand, it was observed that there is no standardized methodology; each researcher chooses a different approach according to the scientific literature. The studies showed that the most abundant microplastics were secondary microplastics, of which polypropylene and polyethylene are predominant due to their different applications in society. This review will serve as a baseline for future research on microplastics in coastal areas of Colombia and will identify the challenges and realities of the country in the face of these emerging pollutants.

Methodology for the design and economic assessment of anaerobic digestion plants to produce energy and biofertilizer from livestock waste.

The generation and poor disposal of waste from livestock industries is the major cause of pollution of water sources, soil, and air. Therefore, profitable alternatives are required for their correct disposal and use. Anaerobic digestion plants are a technologically viable solution to overcome this problem. In this study, it is proposed a methodology for the design and economic assessment of projects using anaerobic digestion plants to produce electrical energy, thermal energy, and biofertilizer from livestock waste. The methodology is developed based on the assumption that the process is mainly composed of an anaerobic digester and an electric generator having a Diesel-cycle internal combustion engine. It is programmed in "MS Excel" sheet and assessed using technical and economic data from a three real anaerobic digestion plants. The methodology obtains technical parameters such as energy production efficiency with an average difference of 35% compared to the real plants data. In addition, the unit capital costs are calculated, obtaining a value of €3789/kW with a difference of 21.1%, as well as unit operating costs of €729/kW per year with a difference of 15.2%. The financial viability of the project is assessed by calculating the net present value and obtaining €577,050 with a difference of 17.8% and an internal rate of return with a percentage difference of 3%. The proposed methodology specifies the technical parameters and the basic engineering of an anaerobic digestion plant in a stationary state, where the basic streams and dimensions of primary equipment, such as anaerobic reactors and electric generators, are specified. Moreover, the methodology calculates capital and operating expenses for an anaerobic digestion plant, which may be useful to assess the technical and financial feasibility for a project of this type.

Mercantilización de los servicios de salud para el desarrollo: el caso de Colombia / Commodification of health care services for development: the case of Colombia

This is a succinct analysis of the circular relationship between health and development and the changes occurring over recent decades regarding health care services production and delivery that have resulted in a new paradigm. From the late 1970s through the 1980s, three major, worldwide shifts occurred that changed health care services in Colombia and in other Latin American countries: the privatization of government entities, the commodification of health care services, and the failure of the Soviet model. Health care system reform in Colombia, considered by some experts to be a model, is an example of health care commodification that, 15 years later, has not achieved the coverage, nor the equity, nor the efficiency, nor the quality, that it should have. More so than the market, the problem has been with the market entities that seek disproportionate profits. A solution for this situation is to appeal to nonprofit organizations for the purchase and sale of health care services.

Desde hace unas dos décadas se impulsaron reformas en los sistemas de salud de América Latina y el Caribe, cuya característica central ha sido la de tratar los servicios de salud como una mercancía bajo diversos esquemas de financiamiento y entrega. Estas reformas constituyen parte del enfoque del desarrollo de la región. El propósito de este ensayo es mostrar que el manejo de los servicios de salud como una mercancía en una economía de mercado no favorece el mejoramiento de la salud y, por tanto, va en contravía de los esfuerzos para incrementar el desarrollo, pues existe una relación circular entre la salud y el desarrollo en la cual la primera condiciona el desarrollo y viceversa. En el caso de Colombia, al cual se hará referencia especial, el cambio en la forma de financiar y entregar los servicios de salud como una mercancía ha conducido a un mayor grado de exclusión e inequidad para la población y a un deterioro marcado de la salud pública.

[Commodification of health care services for development: the case of Colombia]. / Mercantilización de los servicios de salud para el desarrollo: el caso de Colombia.

This is a succinct analysis of the circular relationship between health and development and the changes occurring over recent decades regarding health care services production and delivery that have resulted in a new paradigm. From the late 1970s through the 1980s, three major, worldwide shifts occurred that changed health care services in Colombia and in other Latin American countries: the privatization of government entities, the commodification of health care services, and the failure of the Soviet model. Health care system reform in Colombia, considered by some experts to be a model, is an example of health care commodification that, 15 years later, has not achieved the coverage, nor the equity, nor the efficiency, nor the quality, that it should have. More so than the market, the problem has been with the market entities that seek disproportionate profits. A solution for this situation is to appeal to nonprofit organizations for the purchase and sale of health care services.

La salud y el desarrollo en un sistema rural de servicios de salud / Health and development in a rural system of health services

En la primera parte de este articulo se hace un recuento de las interesantes experiencias del Centro de Investigaciones Multidisciplinarias en Desarrollo Rural de Cali, Colombia, con la aplicacion de un modelo integrado de desarrollo de servicios de salud. En dicho sistema se han utilizado las estrategias siguientes: disponibilidad de los servicios para todos los individuos y familias de la comunidad; uso de tecnologias accesibles; participacion de la comunidad, e inclusion del sector salud con otros sectores del desarrollo. En la segunda parte se presenta un breve recuento del papel de la enfermera en la salud y el desarrollo, y se cuestiona la limitada vision que tradicionalmente se ha tenido del campo de accion de la profesion de enfermeria. Se postula que para lograr la extension de los servicios de salud y el desarrollo de la comunidad, la enfermera debe desempenar una funcion de liderazgo dentro de un equipo multidisciplinario, ya sea como coordinadora de servicios, supervisora de personal, directora de programas, o educadora, y servir de enlace del sistema formal de salud para lograr la participacion activa de la comunidad.