CLEAR: A Holistic Figure-of-Merit for Post- and Predicting Electronic and Photonic-based Compute-system Evolution.

Continuing demands for increased computing efficiency and communication bandwidth have pushed the current semiconductor technology to its limit. This led to novel technologies with the potential to outperform conventional electronic solutions such as photonic pre-processors or accelerators, electronic-photonic hybrid circuits, and neural networks. However, the efforts made to describe and predict the performance evolution of compute-performance fall short to accurately predict and thereby explain the actually observed development pace with time; that is all proposed metrics eventually deviate from their development trajectory after several years from when they were originally proposed. This discrepancy demands a figure-of-merit that includes a holistic set of driving forces of the compute-system evolution. Here we introduce the Capability-to-Latency-Energy-Amount-Resistance (CLEAR) metric encompassing synchronizing speed, energy efficiency, physical machine size scaling, and economic cost. We show that CLEAR is the only metric to accurately describe the historical compute-system development. We find that even across different technology options CLEAR matches the observed (post-diction) constant rate-of-growth, and also fits proposed future compute-system (prediction). Therefore, we propose CLEAR to serve as a guide to quantitatively predict required compute-system demands at a given time in the future.

Neuromorphic photonics with electro-absorption modulators.

Photonic neural networks benefit from both the high-channel capacity and the wave nature of light acting as an effective weighting mechanism through linear optics. Incorporating a nonlinear activation function by using active integrated photonic components allows neural networks with multiple layers to be built monolithically, eliminating the need for energy and latency costs due to external conversion. Interferometer-based modulators, while popular in communications, have been shown to require more area than absorption-based modulators, resulting in a reduced neural network density. Here, we develop a model for absorption modulators in an electro-optic fully connected neural network, including noise, and compare the network's performance with the activation functions produced intrinsically by five types of absorption modulators. Our results show the quantum well absorption modulator-based electro-optic neuron has the best performance allowing for 96% prediction accuracy with 1.7×10-12 J/MAC excluding laser power when performing MNIST classification in a 2 hidden layer feed-forward photonic neural network.

Corrigendum: Software for Brain Network Simulations: A Comparative Study.

[This corrects the article on p. 46 in vol. 11, PMID: 28775687.].

Residue number system arithmetic based on integrated nanophotonics.

The residue number system (RNS) enables dimensionality reduction of an arithmetic problem by representing a large number as a set of smaller integers, where the number is decomposed by prime number factorization. These reduced problem sets can then be processed independently and in parallel, thus improving computational efficiency and speed. Here, we show an optical RNS hardware representation based on integrated nanophotonics. The digit-wise shifting in RNS arithmetic is expressed as spatial routing of an optical signal in 2×2 hybrid photonic-plasmonic switches. Here, the residue is represented by spatially shifting the input waveguides relative to the routers' outputs, where the moduli are represented by the number of waveguides. By cascading the photonic 2×2 switches, we design a photonic RNS adder and a multiplier forming an all-to-all sparse directional network. The advantage of this photonic arithmetic processor is the short (10's ps) computational execution time given by the optical propagation delay through the integrated nanophotonic router. Furthermore, we show how photonic processing in-the-network leverages the natural parallelism of optics such as wavelength-division-multiplexing in this RNS processor. A key application for such a photonic RNS engine is the functional analysis of convolutional neural networks.

MO detector (MOD): a dual-function optical modulator-detector for on-chip communication.

While augmenting network on chips (NoC) with photonic links enables high-bandwidth communication, the overhead for photonics is rather large, mainly driven by bulky footprints and the multi-functionality of transceivers. The latter requires, in addition to a photon source, signal modulation and detection. If the NoC were photonically augmented at every network point to enable all-to-all connectivity, the resulting photonic overhead would be excessive. Besides, the high bandwidth of a single optical bus may be sufficient to supply the data-sharing demand of a network. Spatial signal routing is a necessary function of data communication in NoCs. However, if photonic links are used to augment electronics, an energy-costly optical-electrical-optical (OEO) conversion is required since routing is currently executed in the electronic domain. Here we show a novel integrated broadband hybrid photonic-plasmonic device termed an MO detector featuring dual light modulation and detection. With 10 dB extinction ratio and 0.8 dB insertion loss at the modulation state and 0.7 A/W responsivity at the detection state based on the finite-different time-domain simulation, this transceiver-like device (i) eliminates the OEO conversion, (ii) reduces optical losses from photodetectors via bypassing the photodetector when not needed, and (iii) enables cognitive routing strategies for network-on-chips. As such, the MO detector acts as a micrometer-compact transceiver for next-generation NoCs.

Software for Brain Network Simulations: A Comparative Study.

Numerical simulations of brain networks are a critical part of our efforts in understanding brain functions under pathological and normal conditions. For several decades, the community has developed many software packages and simulators to accelerate research in computational neuroscience. In this article, we select the three most popular simulators, as determined by the number of models in the ModelDB database, such as NEURON, GENESIS, and BRIAN, and perform an independent evaluation of these simulators. In addition, we study NEST, one of the lead simulators of the Human Brain Project. First, we study them based on one of the most important characteristics, the range of supported models. Our investigation reveals that brain network simulators may be biased toward supporting a specific set of models. However, all simulators tend to expand the supported range of models by providing a universal environment for the computational study of individual neurons and brain networks. Next, our investigations on the characteristics of computational architecture and efficiency indicate that all simulators compile the most computationally intensive procedures into binary code, with the aim of maximizing their computational performance. However, not all simulators provide the simplest method for module development and/or guarantee efficient binary code. Third, a study of their amenability for high-performance computing reveals that NEST can almost transparently map an existing model on a cluster or multicore computer, while NEURON requires code modification if the model developed for a single computer has to be mapped on a computational cluster. Interestingly, parallelization is the weakest characteristic of BRIAN, which provides no support for cluster computations and limited support for multicore computers. Fourth, we identify the level of user support and frequency of usage for all simulators. Finally, we carry out an evaluation using two case studies: a large network with simplified neural and synaptic models and a small network with detailed models. These two case studies allow us to avoid any bias toward a particular software package. The results indicate that BRIAN provides the most concise language for both cases considered. Furthermore, as expected, NEST mostly favors large network models, while NEURON is better suited for detailed models. Overall, the case studies reinforce our general observation that simulators have a bias in the computational performance toward specific types of the brain network models.

Novel Models of Visual Topographic Map Alignment in the Superior Colliculus.

The establishment of precise neuronal connectivity during development is critical for sensing the external environment and informing appropriate behavioral responses. In the visual system, many connections are organized topographically, which preserves the spatial order of the visual scene. The superior colliculus (SC) is a midbrain nucleus that integrates visual inputs from the retina and primary visual cortex (V1) to regulate goal-directed eye movements. In the SC, topographically organized inputs from the retina and V1 must be aligned to facilitate integration. Previously, we showed that retinal input instructs the alignment of V1 inputs in the SC in a manner dependent on spontaneous neuronal activity; however, the mechanism of activity-dependent instruction remains unclear. To begin to address this gap, we developed two novel computational models of visual map alignment in the SC that incorporate distinct activity-dependent components. First, a Correlational Model assumes that V1 inputs achieve alignment with established retinal inputs through simple correlative firing mechanisms. A second Integrational Model assumes that V1 inputs contribute to the firing of SC neurons during alignment. Both models accurately replicate in vivo findings in wild type, transgenic and combination mutant mouse models, suggesting either activity-dependent mechanism is plausible. In silico experiments reveal distinct behaviors in response to weakening retinal drive, providing insight into the nature of the system governing map alignment depending on the activity-dependent strategy utilized. Overall, we describe novel computational frameworks of visual map alignment that accurately model many aspects of the in vivo process and propose experiments to test them.

Predicting the severity of motor neuron disease progression using electronic health record data with a cloud computing Big Data approach.

Motor neuron diseases (MNDs) are a class of progressive neurological diseases that damage the motor neurons. An accurate diagnosis is important for the treatment of patients with MNDs because there is no standard cure for the MNDs. However, the rates of false positive and false negative diagnoses are still very high in this class of diseases. In the case of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), current estimates indicate 10% of diagnoses are false-positives, while 44% appear to be false negatives. In this study, we developed a new methodology to profile specific medical information from patient medical records for predicting the progression of motor neuron diseases. We implemented a system using Hbase and the Random forest classifier of Apache Mahout to profile medical records provided by the Pooled Resource Open-Access ALS Clinical Trials Database (PRO-ACT) site, and we achieved 66% accuracy in the prediction of ALS progress.