Eco-physiological response of Hypnum cupressiforme Hedw. to increased atmospheric ammonia concentrations in a forest agrosystem.

Ammonia (NH3) emissions are linked to eutrophication, plant toxicity and ecosystem shifts from N to P limitation. Bryophytes are key components of terrestrial ecosystems, yet highly sensitive to N deposition. Hence, physiological responses of mosses may be indicative of NH3-related impacts, and thus useful to foresee future ecosystem damages and establish atmospheric Critical Levels (CLEs). In this work, samples of Hypnum cupressiforme Hedw. were seasonally collected along a well-defined NH3 concentration gradient in an oak woodland during a one-year period. We performed a comprehensive evaluation of tissue chemistry, stoichiometry, metabolic enzymes, antioxidant response, membrane damages, photosynthetic pigments, soluble protein content and N and C isotopic fractionation. Our results showed that all the physiological parameters studied (except P, K, Ca and C) responded to the NH3 gradient in predictable ways, although the magnitude and significance of the response were dependent on the sampling season, especially for enzymatic activities and pigments content. Nutritional imbalances, membrane damages and disturbance of cellular C and N metabolism were found as a consequence to NH3 exposure, being more affected the mosses more exposed to the barn atmosphere. These findings suggested significant implications of intensive farming for the correct functioning of oak woodlands and highlighted the importance of seasonal dynamics in the study of key physiological processes related to photosynthesis, mosses nutrition and responses to oxidative stress. Finally, tissue N showed the greatest potential for the identification of NH3-related ecological end points (estimated CLE=3.5µgm-3), whereas highly scattered physiological responses, although highly sensitive, were not suitable to that end.

Throughfall and bulk deposition of dissolved organic nitrogen to holm oak forests in the Iberian Peninsula: Flux estimation and identification of potential sources.

Deposition of dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) in both bulk precipitation (BD) and canopy throughfall (TF) has been measured for the first time in the western Mediterranean. The study was carried out over a year from 2012 to 2013 at four evergreen holm oak forests located in the Iberian Peninsula: two sites in the Province of Barcelona (Northeastern Spain), one in the Province of Madrid (central Spain) and the fourth in the Province of Navarra (Northern Spain). In BD the annual volume weighted mean (VWM) concentration of DON ranged from 0.25 mg l(-1) in Madrid to 1.14 mg l(-1) in Navarra, whereas in TF it ranged from 0.93 mg l(-1) in Barcelona to 1.98 mg l(-1) in Madrid. The contribution of DON to total nitrogen deposition varied from 34% to 56% in BD in Barcelona and Navarra respectively, and from 38% in Barcelona to 72% in Madrid in TF. Agricultural activities and pollutants generated in metropolitan areas were identified as potential anthropogenic sources of DON at the study sites. Moreover, canopy uptake of DON in Navarra was found in spring and autumn, showing that organic nitrogen may be a supplementary nutrient for Mediterranean forests, assuming that a portion of the nitrogen taken up is assimilated during biologically active periods.

Biomonitoring of traffic-related nitrogen pollution using Letharia vulpina (L.) Hue in the Sierra Nevada, California.

To assess the impact of vehicular emissions on a mixed conifer forest, we measured the contents of the trace elements, N, C, and their respective natural isotopes (δ(15)N and δ(13)C), in the epiphytic lichen, L. vulpina. The samples were collected along transects perpendicular to Interstate 80 (I-80) and along a more remote, secondary forest road (R07). Distance to the road verge, trunk cover, and stand basal area were also recorded. Percent N ranged from 1.10% to 2.00% near I-80 and from 0.78% to 1.13% along R07. Concentrations of N, (15)N, Na, As, Pb, and Zn were enhanced in lichen samples near I-80 and were negatively correlated with distance from the road. Trunk cover values differed between roads (p<0.001) and were negatively correlated with %N (r(2)=0.74; p<0.001). The results indicate that vehicular N emissions are significant enough to alter the surrounding ecosystem, modifying the presence of a sensitive component such as L. vulpina, and suggest that a clean-site threshold of 1.0%N may be too high as an indicator of critical N load exceedance. The study also underscored the potential role of wolf lichen in a large-scale assessment of N deposition and source identification.

Use of native mosses as biomonitors of heavy metals and nitrogen deposition in the surroundings of two steel works.

A biomonitoring survey using the moss species Hypnum cupressiforme Hedw. was conducted in the surroundings of two steel plants located in the North of Spain. Levels of V, Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Cd, Hg, Pb and N were determined. Very high concentrations in the areas of study were detected when compared to nearby unaffected regions. Similar trends were observed for all the elements in the differently orientated transects, showing an appreciable influence of the NW prevailing winds of the region in the dispersion of pollutants, as well as a clear decreasing gradient in the concentrations of metals in mosses within a distance of 1500 meters from the facilities. A differentiation between the elements emitted by the chimney as result of the industrial activity (V, Cr, Ni, Cu and As) and those with a high presence in steel slag deposits (Zn, Cd, Hg and Pb) was observed. The range of contamination was also established by means of the Contamination Factor, indicating a category 4 out of 6 categories, which shows the high levels reported in the areas of study. A different dynamic was registered for nitrogen regarding the rest of the heavy metals analysed except for Hg, probably due to the elevated volatility and mobility of both elements, as well as their high persistence in the atmosphere.

Ambient air levels of volatile organic compounds (VOC) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in a medium size city in Northern Spain.

Ambient concentrations of volatile organic compounds (VOC) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) were measured by means of passive sampling at 40 sampling points in a medium-size city in Northern Spain, from June 2006 to June 2007. VOC and NO2 samplers were analysed by thermal desorption followed by gas chromatography/mass-selective detector and by visible spectrophotometry, respectively. Mean concentrations of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylenes, propylbenzene, trimethylbenzenes, and NO(2) were 2.84, 13.26, 2.15, 6.01, 0.59, 1.32 and 23.17 microg m(-3) respectively, and found to be highly correlated. Their spatial distribution showed high differences in small distances and pointed to traffic as the main emission source of these compounds. The lowest levels of VOC and NO2 occurred during summer, owing to the increase in solar radiation and to lower traffic densities. Mean concentrations of benzene and NO2 exceeded the European limits at some of the monitored points.

Exposure to volatile organic compounds (VOC) in public buses of Pamplona, Northern Spain.

This study examines the exposure level of passengers and drivers to VOC in public buses in a medium-size metropolitan area (Northern Spain). In-vehicle monitoring was performed on different routes, on peak and non-peak hours, during January and February 2007. A total of 112 air samples were collected onto adsorbent tubes and analysed by thermal desorption (TD) and gas chromatography/mass selective detector (GC/MSD) technique. Statistical differences were found among route to route concentrations, with those routes with major prevalence in the commercial area of the city displaying higher values; differences between peak and non-peak hours were also observed. A decrease in VOC concentrations was also registered during the weekend. BTEX ratios were estimated and found to be related to traffic emissions and similar for all the surveyed routes. Correlations confirmed traffic as the main emission source for BTEX and trimethylbenzene, their concentrations being highly associated to changes in meteorological conditions.

Study of urban atmospheric pollution in Navarre (Northern Spain).

An ambient air quality study was undertaken in two cities (Pamplona and Alsasua) of the Province of Navarre in northern Spain from July 2001 to June 2004. The data were obtained from two urban monitoring sites. At both monitoring sites, ambient levels of ozone, NOx, and SO2 were measured. Simultaneously with levels of PM(10) measured at Alsasua (using a laser particle counter), PM(10) levels were also determined at Pamplona (using a beta attenuation monitor). Mean annual PM(10) concentrations in Pamplona and Alsasua reached 30 and 28 microg m(-3), respectively. These concentrations are typical for urban background sites in Northern Spain. By using meteorological information and back trajectories, it was found that the number of exceedances of the daily PM(10) limit as well as the PM(10) temporal variation was highly influenced by air masses from North Africa. Although North African transport was observed on only 9% of the days, it contributed the highest observed PM(10) levels. Transport from the Atlantic Ocean was observed on 68% of the days; transport from Europe on 13%; low transport and local influences on 7%; and transport from the Mediterranean region on 3% of the days. The mean O3 concentrations were 45 and 55 microg m(-3) in Pamplona and Alsasua, respectively, which were above the values reported for the main Spanish cities. The mean NO and NO2 levels were very similar in both sites (12 and 26 microg m(-3), respectively). Mean SO2 levels were 8 microg m(-3) in Pamplona and 5 microg m(-3) in Alsasua. Hourly levels of PM(10), NO and NO2 showed similar variations with the typically two coincident maximums during traffic rush hours demonstrating a major anthropogenic origin of PM(10), in spite of the sporadic dust outbreaks.

Spatial and temporal trends of volatile organic compounds (VOC) in a rural area of northern Spain.

Ambient concentrations of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were measured at 40 rural sampling points in Navarre (northern Spain). Air samples were collected by means of sorbent passive sampling and analyzed by thermal desorption (TD) and gas chromatography/mass-selective detector (GC/MSD). A total of 140 VOCs were identified during the study, which was carried out between May to October 2004 for a total of a 10 biweekly sampling campaigns. Concentrations of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, m/p-xylenes, o-xylene (BTEX) and 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene were determined in order to investigate their temporal and spatial distributions. Geostatistical analysis pointed to traffic as the main emission source of these compounds. Supporting this idea, BTEX and nitrogen oxides concentrations were found to be highly significantly correlated (r = 0.495, P = 0.001), whereas a strong negative correlation between BTEX and ozone was also observed (r = -0.355, P = 0.025). The concentrations for the BTEX group were similar to the values that have been previously reported for other rural areas.