Organic anion and cation transporter expression and function during embryonic kidney development and in organ culture models.

Organic anion and cation transporters (OATs, OCTs, and OCTNs) mediate the proximal tubular secretion of numerous clinically important compounds, including various commonly prescribed pharmaceuticals. Here, we report determination of the ontogeny of these transporters and of NaP(i)2 and SGLT1, using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (QPCR) to determine expression levels of transporter genes in rat embryonic kidneys on each day of gestation from embryonic day (ed) 13 to ed18, in cultures of induced and uninduced metanephric mesenchyme (MM), and on each day of 1 week of whole embryonic kidney (WEK) culture. We also examined ontogeny of Oat1 protein expression in rat embryonic kidney by immunohistochemistry. Finally, we used uptake of fluorescein (FL) as a novel in vitro functional assay of OAT expression in WEK and MM. Developmental induction of OAT and OCT genes does not occur uniformly: some genes are induced early (e.g., Oat1 and Oat3, potential early markers of proximal tubulogenesis), and others after kidney development is relatively advanced (e.g., Oct1, a potential marker of terminal differentiation). The ontogeny of transporter genes in WEK and MM is similar to that observed in vivo, indicating that these organ culture systems may represent convenient in vitro models to study the developmental induction of OATs, OCTs, and OCTNs. Functional transport was evidenced by accumulation of FL in the developing tubule in WEK and MM organ cultures. Our findings on the renal ontogeny of OATs and OCTs could carry implications both for the development of more rational therapeutics for premature infants, as well as for our understanding of proximal tubule differentiation.

The GnRH promoter: target of transcription factors, hormones, and signaling pathways.

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is essential for normal reproductive maturation and function. We present a review of the known mechanisms of hypothalamic GnRH transcriptional control through the conserved GnRH promoter. Understanding this promoter region will allow us to comprehend better the complexities of the hypothalamic pituitary-gonadal axis.

Oct-1 binds promoter elements required for transcription of the GnRH gene.

The GnRH gene is exclusively expressed in a discrete population of neurons in the hypothalamus. The promoter-proximal 173 bp of the rat GnRH gene are highly conserved through evolution and are bound by multiple nuclear proteins found in the neuronal cell line, GT1-7, a model for the GnRH-expressing hypothalamic neuron. To explore the protein-DNA interactions that occur within this promoter and the role of these interactions in targeting GnRH gene expression, we have mutagenized individual binding sites in this region. Deoxyribonuclease I protection experiments reveal that footprint 2, a 51-bp sequence that confers a 20-fold induction of the GnRH gene, is comprised of at least three independent protein-binding sites. Transfections of the GnRH promoter-reporter plasmid containing a series of block mutations of footprint 2 into GT1-7 neurons indicate that each of the three putative component sites contributes to transcriptional activity. Mutations in footprint 4 also decrease GnRH gene expression. Footprint 4 and the promoter-proximal site in footprint 2 contain octamer-like motifs, an element that is also present in the neuron-specific enhancer of the rat GnRH gene located approximately 1.6 kb upstream of the promoter. Previous studies in our laboratory have demonstrated that two enhancer octamer sites are bound by the POU-homeodomain transcription factor Oct-1 in GT1-7 cells. We now show that Oct-1 binds the octamer motifs within footprints 2 and 4. Thus, Oct-1 plays a critical role in the regulation of GnRH transcription, binding functional elements in both the distal enhancer and the promoter-proximal conserved region.

Regulation of gonadotropin-releasing hormone transcription by protein kinase C is mediated by evolutionarily conserved promoter-proximal elements.

We previously demonstrated that down-regulation of protein kinase C (PKC) by prolonged 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) treatment leads to the specific repression of GnRH transcription in GT1-7 hypothalamic neurons. Here we have investigated the regulatory sequences and cognate DNA-binding proteins that mediate this transcriptional response. The promoter-proximal section of the GnRH gene contains an evolutionarily conserved sequence that is bound along its entire length by GT1-7 nuclear proteins in DNase I protection assays. Two distinct regions within this sequence are required for PKC regulation of the GnRH gene, as excision of either region results in loss of TPA repression of transcription. Excision of either of these regions also decreases basal transcription, demonstrating their role in GnRH promoter function. One region encompasses three AT-rich protein-binding sites; the other is an extended region of continuous DNase I protection, 50 nucleotides in length, that contains consensus recognition motifs for the CCAAT/EBP and helix-loop-helix families of transcription factors. Mobility shift analysis of binding to the latter region reveals that TPA treatment of GT1-7 neurons induces the formation of a specific DNA-protein complex with kinetics of appearance consistent with a role in repression of GnRH transcription. Thus, the sequences that mediate PKC regulation of GnRH are proximal to the promoter, evolutionarily conserved, and form TPA-inducible complexes with GT1-7 nuclear proteins.

A neuron-specific enhancer targets expression of the gonadotropin-releasing hormone gene to hypothalamic neurosecretory neurons.

The molecular mechanisms specifying gene expression in individual neurons of the mammalian central nervous system have been difficult to study due to the cellular complexity of the brain and the absence of cultured model systems representing differentiated central nervous system neurons. We have developed clonal, differentiated, neuronal tumor cell lines of the hypothalamic GnRH-producing neurons by targeting tumorigenesis in transgenic mice. These cells (GT1 cells) provide a model system for molecular studies of GnRH gene regulation. Here we present the identification and characterization of a neuron-specific enhancer responsible for directing expression of the rat GnRH gene in GT1 hypothalamic neurons. This approximately 300 base pair (bp) upstream region (-1571 to -1863) confers enhancer activity to a short -173-bp GnRH promoter or to a heterologous promoter only in GT1 cells. The enhancer is bound by multiple GT1 nuclear proteins over its entire length. Deletion of more than 30 bp from either end dramatically reduces activity, and even large internal fragments carrying seven of the eight DNAse I-protected elements show decreased activity. Scanning replacement mutations demonstrate that several of the internal elements are required for activity of the enhancer. Thus, the GnRH gene is targeted to hypothalamic neurons by a complex multicomponent enhancer that relies on the interaction of multiple nuclear-protein binding enhancer elements.

Regulation of gonadotropin-releasing hormone by protein kinase-A and -C in immortalized hypothalamic neurons.

As major signal transduction cascades, the protein kinase-A and -C (PKA and PKC) pathways have been implicated in the regulation of GnRH synthesis and secretion in the hypothalamus. We have investigated the roles of these pathways in the regulation of GnRH transcription, mRNA levels, propeptide processing, and secretion in GT1-7 cells, a mouse hypothalamic GnRH neuronal cell line. Forskolin, which activates adenylate cyclase to raise cAMP levels, had no effect on GnRH mRNA levels at 10 microM, but induced c-fos mRNA at 30 min. An activator of PKC, 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA; 100 nM), also induced c-fos at 30 min, but produced a progressive decline in GnRH mRNA, resulting in a 70% decrease by 16 h. Coadministration of 10 nM TPA and 20 microM of a PKC inhibitor, NPC 15437 [2,6-diamino-N-([1-(1-oxotridecyl)2-piperidinyl]methyl)hexanami de], prevented c-fos induction, but did not antagonize GnRH repression. Instead, the inhibitor itself reduced GnRH mRNA levels by 56% at 16 h (with no effect on c-fos mRNA). Thus, since extended exposure to TPA can down-regulate PKC, suppression of GnRH mRNA by TPA may be due to decreased PKC activity, indicating a role for PKC in the maintenance of the GnRH gene expression (a role that is unlikely to involve c-fos). In transient transfections, the transcriptional activity from 3 kilobases of GnRH 5'-flanking sequence was repressed 2-fold by either 100 nM TPA or 20 microM NPC 15437 at 24 h, demonstrating that suppression of GnRH mRNA is at least, in part, at the level of transcription. In contrast, both TPA (100 nM) and forskolin (10 microM) stimulated secretion. Enhancement of GnRH secretion by TPA was robust and rapid (2.5 min), while the response to forskolin was relatively delayed (2 h). Over a 24-h period, unstimulated cells released primarily unprocessed prohormone, whereas forskolin and TPA stimulated the secretion of processed products. These data indicate that PKC and PKA may influence propeptide processing and/or the route of GnRH secretion. These data demonstrate that the PKA and PKC pathways regulate GnRH at the multiple levels of transcription, pro-GnRH processing, and GnRH secretion.

Immortalized hypothalamic gonadotropin-releasing hormone neurons.

The neuroendocrine hypothalamus has been intensively studied using whole animals and tissue slices. However, it has been difficult to approach questions at the molecular and cellular level. By targeting expression of the oncogene product, simian virus 40 T antigen, in transgenic mice using the regulatory domain of the rat gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) gene, we have produced specific hypothalamic tumours. These tumours have been cultured to produce clonal cell lines (GT-1 cells) that express T antigen, GnRH and many other neuronal markers, but do not express other hypothalamic hormones. These immortal cell lines have a distinctive neuronal phenotype, process the GnRH peptide accurately and secrete GnRH in a pulsatile pattern. Thus, by targeting oncogenesis to a defined population of neurons using the regulatory region of a gene that is expressed late in differentiation of that cell lineage, we have succeeded in immortalizing hypothalamic GnRH neurons. The GT-1 cell lines are an excellent model for future molecular, cell biological, physiological and biochemical investigations into the mechanisms involved in regulation of GnRH and the characteristics of an isolated central nervous system neuron. Their derivation demonstrates the utility of targeting tumorigenesis to specific differentiated neurons of the central nervous system in transgenic mice.