Biomechanical Adjustments of the Basketball Jump Shot Performed Over Differently High Opponents.

Biomechanical adjustments of the jump shot in presence of an opponent and their associations with shooting efficiency remain to be determined in elite basketball. The aim of this research was to examine the selected biomechanical determinants of the jump shot when shooting over opponents of different height. Nineteen elite basketball players, age 22 ± 3 years, performed three trials of 20 basketball shots in a crossover, randomised manner: over an obstacle of the height of standing reach (RH), over reach height with additional 20 cm (RH+20 cm), over reach height with additional 40 cm (RH+40 cm), and the maximum height jump shot without an obstacle (JSmax). Jump height, the ball entry angle, and shooting efficiency were measured on each trial. Jump height when shooting over RH+40 cm was significantly higher than RH+20 cm (+0.022 m, p = 0.030) and RH (+0.023 m, p = 0.029). Similarly, the ball entry angle was greater at RH+40 cm compared to RH (+7.19 °, p < 0.001) and RH+20 cm (+2.90°, p < 0.001). In contrast, shooting efficiency decreased significantly when shooting over RH+40 cm compared to RH (-10.79%, p = 0.048) and RH+20 cm (-8.95%, p = 0.015). We recorded the highest jump height (0.35 ± 0.08m, p < 0.001) and the lowest angle of entry (39.16 ± 1.19°, p < 0.001) when participants performed JSmax. Shooting over higher opponents should be prioritised in training to significantly improve shooting efficiency. Future research is needed to determine additional potential biomechanical determinants of a successful jump shot in elite basketball.

Common Movement Patterns of the Jump Shot While Increasing the Distance from the Basket in Elite Basketball Players.

The aim of this study was to examine chosen kinematic variables (duration of the shot, position of the centre of mass, position of the shooting hand, rotation of the shoulder axis) of successful shots and to describe differences in movement patterns in elite basketball players while increasing the distance from the basket during a jump shot. Our participants were three elite shooting guards who were all Slovenian national team and Euroleague players. They were shooting from three different distances (3.75 m, 5.25 m, and 6.75 m); analysis included 90 successful shots. The kinematics of the entire body was analysed using the inertial motion capture suit. The main interest was on the transverse plane (direction Y), focusing on rotational movements and movements to the left and right. The results showed that the rotation of the shoulder axis in the transverse plane, with all three participants, was greatest (p < .05) from the longest distance. Despite that graphs of individual players differed, deviation to the left was most significant while shooting from the largest distance for all participants. Also the landing from the jump shot was on the left according to the origin. For example, the average deviation to the left for player no. 2 was 11.9 ± 3.6 cm (the shortest distance), 12.6 ± 4.7 cm (the middle distance), and 23.3 ± 5.1 cm (the longest distance). Distance from the basket influenced the kinematics of the shot, especially from the longest distance. Along with the already well-known changes in the sagittal plane (direction X and Z), this research provides information on changes in the transverse plane, which are also very important, especially while shooting from longer distances.

Shooting accuracy in children's basketball: Do equipment dimensions influence static and dynamic performances?

The purpose of study was to explore the influence of equipment dimensions on shooting accuracy in children's basketball through the effects of (a) using basket height and ball size for children and adult, along with different shooting distances (Study 1) and (b) the applied 12-week shooting training with different ball sizes (Study 2). The participants were basketball players from the same club ages from 10 to 11 years and with at least one-year basketball training experiences. In Study 1, we recruited 22 children; while in Study 2 we selected 36 children in two experimental (practice with balls for adults and children) and one control group (no practice). Shooting accuracy was assessed through the static and dynamic trials. The obtained results showed that children equipment provided no acute advantages compared to the adult equipment in terms of shooting accuracy either in static or dynamic conditions. In addition, we found no benefits on shooting accuracy when compared the effects of applied shooting training either for practice with children's or adult's ball sizes. The present findings suggested that the applied manipulations of equipment for children and adult produce no differences in terms of static or dynamic shooting accuracy performances in young basketball players.

Trends in NBA and Euroleague basketball: Analysis and comparison of statistical data from 2000 to 2017.

We analyse and compare NBA and Euroleague basketball through box-score statistics in the period from 2000 to 2017. Overall, the quantitative differences between the NBA and Euroleague have decreased and are still decreasing. Differences are even smaller after we adjust for game length and when playoff NBA basketball is considered instead of regular season basketball. The differences in factors that contribute to success are also very small-(Oliver's) four factors derived from box-score statistics explain most of the variability in team success even if the coefficients are determined for both competitions simultaneously instead of each competition separately. The largest difference is game pace-in the NBA there are more possessions per game. The number of blocks, the defensive rebounding rate and the number of free throws per foul committed are also higher in the NBA, while the number of fouls committed is lower. Most of the differences that persist can be reasonably explained by the contrasts between the better athleticism of NBA players and more emphasis on tactical aspects of basketball in the Euroleague.

Using blood lactate concentration to predict muscle damage and jump performance response to maximal stretch-shortening cycle exercise.

BACKGROUND: It is well known that eccentric muscle contractions induce delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) and exertional rhabdomyolysis (ERB), both of which are related to high blood levels of muscle damage markers after exercise. Creatine kinase (CK) is, together with some other markers (i.e. myoglobin, α-actin, skeletal troponin), widely used in determination of muscle damage. Moreover, DOMS after eccentric exercise has been shown to be associated with altered blood lactate concentration after subsequent submaximal or maximal cycling exercise. However, it is unknown whether blood lactate can predict muscle damage levels after maximal stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) exercise, as due to the differences in types of contractions between the eccentric and SSC protocol. Additionally, we determined the association between blood lactate concentration and CMJ performance after such a protocol. METHODS: Forty-three healthy, physically active young men completed a plyometric training session consisting of maximal countermovement jumps (CMJ) to failure. The blood creatine kinase (CK), myoglobin (Mb) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) samples were taken pre- and 48 hours post-exercise. Blood lactate concentration was determined directly post-exercise. RESULTS: There was a significant correlation between blood lactate concentration (post) and blood CK (P=0.027), Mb (P=0.007) and AST (P=0.024) (48 hours post), which means that higher blood lactate concentration is associated with higher muscle damage values after exercise. No correlation was found between blood lactate concentration (post) and performance loss which was expressed by the decrease in maximum CMJ height 5 minutes post-exercise. CONCLUSIONS: Blood lactate concentration could be used as a predictor of muscle damage levels after maximal SSC exercise, which supports the results found in other studies, although after eccentric exercise. However, it cannot predict acute performance loss in jump height.

Biological maturity status and motor performance in fourteen-year-old basketball players / Estado de madurez biológica y desempeño motriz en jugadores de baloncesto de catorce años de edad

The aims of this study were to detect biological maturity and certain athletic skills in boys aged 14 participating in competitive basketball, and to compare certain athletic skills of participants according to their biological maturity status. The participants were most talented Serbian basketball players (n= 49) who were divided into three groups according to their maturity status: early (n= 14), average (n= 24) and late maturing (n= 11). Biological maturity status of participants was assessed by technique developed by Mirwald et al. (2002). Nine tests of basic athletic skills: vertical jump, medicine ball throwing, run at 20, 30 and 50 m, agility t-test, zigzag agility drill, agility run 4x15 m, the line drill, as well as four basketball skills field tests (speed spot shooting, passing, control dribble and defensive movement) were applied. The results of this study showed that the three groups of subjects differed in applied variables (p <0.05). Average maturers achieved the best results in almost all variables, while late maturers achieved the worst results. Early maturers achieved the best results only in one variable - medicine ball throwing. Only harmonized chronological and biological age, i.e. chronological and biological growth and development, enable the best demonstration of motor abilities based on morphological characteristics.

Los objetivos fueron detectar la madurez biológica y ciertas habilidades atléticas en los varones mayores de 14 años que participan en el baloncesto competitivo, y compararlas en función de su estado de madurez biológica. La muestra se conformó con jugadores de baloncesto serbios de mayor talento (n= 49) que fueron divididos en tres grupos de acuerdo a su estado de madurez: temprana (n= 14), promedio (n= 24) y tardía (n= 11). El estado de madurez biológica de los participantes se evaluó mediante la técnica desarrollada por Mirwald et al. (2002). Se aplicaron nueve pruebas de habilidades atléticas básicas: salto vertical, lanzamiento de balón medicinal, carrera de 20, 30 y 50 m, prueba t de agilidad, agilidad en zig-zag, carrera en 4x15 m, línea de perforación, así como pruebas de campo de baloncesto de cuatro habilidades (velocidad de disparos punto, de paso, control de regate y movimiento defensivo). Los resultados de este estudio mostraron que los tres grupos de sujetos diferían en variables aplicadas (p <0,05). Los jugadores de maduración media obtuvieron los mejores resultados en casi todas las variables, mientras que los jugadores de maduración tardía alcanzaron los peores resultados. Los jugadores de maduración temprana lograron el mejor resultado en sólo una variable ­ el lanzamiento de balón medicinal. Solamente el desarrollo cronológico armónico y la edad biológica, es decir, el crecimiento y el desarrollo cronológico y biológico, permiten la mejor demostración de las habilidades motoras basadas en características morfológicas.

Basketball shot types and shot success in different levels of competitive basketball.

The purpose of our research was to investigate the relative frequencies of different types of basketball shots (above head, hook shot, layup, dunk, tip-in), some details about their technical execution (one-legged, two-legged, drive, cut, …), and shot success in different levels of basketball competitions. We analysed video footage and categorized 5024 basketball shots from 40 basketball games and 5 different levels of competitive basketball (National Basketball Association (NBA), Euroleague, Slovenian 1st Division, and two Youth basketball competitions). Statistical analysis with hierarchical multinomial logistic regression models reveals that there are substantial differences between competitions. However, most differences decrease or disappear entirely after we adjust for differences in situations that arise in different competitions (shot location, player type, and attacks in transition). Differences after adjustment are mostly between the Senior and Youth competitions: more shots executed jumping or standing on one leg, more uncategorised shot types, and more dribbling or cutting to the basket in the Youth competitions, which can all be attributed to lesser technical and physical ability of developing basketball players. The two discernible differences within the Senior competitions are that, in the NBA, dunks are more frequent and hook shots are less frequent compared to European basketball, which can be attributed to better athleticism of NBA players. The effect situational variables have on shot types and shot success are found to be very similar for all competitions.

Graded shuttle run performance by playing positions in elite female basketball.

A graded shuttle run test was used to assess differences in physiological parameters between playing positions in elite female basketball players. Twenty-four female basketball players (8 guards, 8 forwards, and 8 centers) who played for the senior national teams of Slovenia and Serbia were tested with the 30-15 intermittent fitness test. During the shuttle run, the following physiological parameters were measured: oxygen consumption ((Equation is included in full-text article.)), carbon dioxide production ((Equation is included in full-text article.)), pulmonary ventilation (VE) breath by breath, respiratory quotient, oxygen pulse as the (Equation is included in full-text article.)vs. HR ratio and [LA]. No significant differences were found for any of the measures between the 3 playing positions. Although this finding was surprising, future studies should try to determine whether the tactics used in female basketball determine that the interpositional differences seen in male basketball are not evident.

Analysis of experts' quantitative assessment of adolescent basketball players and the role of anthropometric and physiological attributes.

IN THIS PAPER, WE INVESTIGATED TWO QUESTIONS: (1) can measurements of anthropometric and physiological attributes substitute for expert assessment of adolescent basketball players, and (2) how much does the quantitative assessment of a player vary among experts? The first question is relevant to the potential simplification of the player selection process. The second question pertains directly to the validity of expert quantitative assessment. Our research was based on data from 148 U14 female and male basketball players. For each player, an array of anthropometric and physiological attributes was recorded, including body height, body mass, BMI, and several motor skill tests. Furthermore, each player's current ability and potential ability were quantitatively evaluated by two different experts from a group of seven experts. Analysis of the recorded data showed that the anthropometric and physiological attributes explained between 15% and 40% of the variance in experts' scores. The primary predictive attributes were speed and agility (for predicting current ability) and body height and growth potential (for predicting potential ability). We concluded that these attributes were not sufficiently informative to act as a substitute for expert assessment of the players' current or potential ability. There is substantial variability in different experts' scores of the same player's ability. However, the differences between experts are mostly in scale, and the relationships between experts' scores are monotonic. That is, different experts rank players on ability very similarly, but their scores are not well calibrated.

Morphological profile of different types of top young female European basketball players.

Basketball is a team sport involving several types of players who differ in terms of body height and other morphological dimensions. This study aimed to establish and analyze the morphological characteristics of top young female European basketball players, the development levels of the morphological characteristics of three basic types of such players and any differences among them. The sample of subjects comprised 115 female basketball players aged 14.64 (+/- 0.48) years. They were divided into three groups according to their playing position: guard (N = 51), forward (N = 33) and center (N = 31). The study applied 23 morphological measures, based on which the somatotype components, percentages of bone, muscle and fat tissue and other morphological indexes were calculated. Statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) were established between individual types of players in terms of their body height, body mass and the three somatotype components, by using a one-way analysis of variance, whereas no such differences were identified in terms of their bone, muscle and fat tissue percentages. There were no differences even after the effect of body height was eliminated by using a multivariate analysis of covariance. The effect of the covariate was only statistically significant in terms of bone tissue percentage. The results of the study thus refute the assumption that it is possible to differentiate player types according to their proportions of fat and muscle tissue.

Bilateral concentric and eccentric isokinetic strength evaluation of quadriceps and hamstrings in basketball players.

The aim of the study was to investigate the existence of bilateral asymmetry in healthy basketball players of different age, as evidence suggest that it may be an age related phenomenon which develops over the years of training. Fifty healthy basketball players (26 males and 24 females) participated in the study. The quadriceps (Q) and the hamstring (H) were tested concentrically and eccentrically at 60 degrees/s. The main outcome measure was body weight normalized peak torque (PT/BW). We have also calculated different strength ratios as well as the bilateral strength differences. The main findings indicate that (1) bilateral strength asymmetry is noticeable in senior basketball players relating predominantly to the Q (2) some gender related strength differences were mainly associated with the concentric strength of Q and H (3) when corrected for weight and height, age related strength differences were relatively small and observed only with respect to H strength in males (4) superiority of eccentric over concentric strength values of Q and H was more pronounced in females than in males. Strength asymmetry in senior basketball players may be more attributable to the better neuromuscular control during vertical jumping than to the strength itself as there were no age related differences between cadets and senior players.

A decade of euroleague basketball: an analysis of trends and recent rule change effects.

The International Basketball Federation (FIBA) recently introduced major rule changes that came into effect with the 2010/11 season. Most notably, moving the three-point arc and changing the shot-clock. The purpose of this study was to investigate and quantify how these changes affect the game performance of top-level European basketball players. In order to better understand these changes, we also investigated past seasons and showed the presence of several trends, even in the absence of significant rule changes. A large set of game statistics for 10 seasons and 2198 Euroleague basketball games in which top European clubs competed was analyzed. Results show that the effects of the rule changes are contrary to trends in recent years.

The effect of introducing a smaller and lighter basketball on female basketball players' shot accuracy.

Our study examined whether the introduction of a smaller and lighter basketball (no. 6) affected the accuracy of female basketball players' shots at the basket. The International Basketball Federation (FIBA) introduced a size 6 ball in the 2004/2005 season to improve the efficiency and accuracy of technical elements, primarily shots at the basket. The sample for this study included 573 European female basketball players who were members of national teams that had qualified for the senior women's European championships in 2001, 2003, 2005 and 2007. A size 7 (larger and heavier) basketball was used by 286 players in 1,870 matches, and a size 6 basketball was used by 287 players in 1,966 matches. The players were categorised into three playing positions: guards, forwards and centres. The results revealed that statistically significant changes by year occurred only in terms of the percentage of successful free throws. With the size 6 basketball, this percentage decreased. Statistically significant differences between the playing positions were observed in terms of the percentage of field goals worth three points (between guards and forwards) and two points (between guards and centres). The results show that the introduction of the size 6 basketball did not lead to improvement in shooting accuracy (the opposite was found for free throws), although the number of three-point shots increased.

Speed and agility of 12- and 14-year-old elite male basketball players.

The aims of this study were (a) to identify and compare the speed and agility of 12- and 14-year-old elite male basketball players and (b) to investigate relations between speed and agility for both age groups of basketball players, to help coaches to improve their work. Sixty-four players aged 12 (M = 11.98 years, SD = 0.311) and 54 players aged 14 (M = 14.092 years, SD = 0.275) were tested. Three agility tests: agility t-test, zigzag agility drill, and agility run 4 × 15 m and 3 speed tests: 20-m run, 30-m run, and 50-m run were applied. Fourteen-year-old players achieved significantly better results in all speed and agility tests compared with 12-year-old players. The correlation coefficient (r = 0.81, p = 0.001) showed that 12-year-old players have the same ability in the 30- and 50-m runs. The other correlation coefficient (r = 0.59, p = 0.001) indicated that 20- and 30-m runs had inherently different qualities. The correlation coefficients between agility tests were <0.71, and therefore, each test in this group represents a specific task. In 14-year-old players, the correlation coefficients between the speed test results were <0.71. In contrast, the correlation coefficients between the agility tests were >0.71, which means that all the 3 tests represent the same quality. During the speed training of 12-year-old players, it is advisable to focus on shorter running distances, up to 30 m. During the agility training of the same players, it is useful to apply exercises with various complexities. In speed training of the 14-year-old players, the 30- and 50-m runs should be applied, and agility training should include more specific basketball movements and activities.

Physical demands on young elite European female basketball players with special reference to speed, agility, explosive strength, and take-off power.

The aim of the study was to determine and analyze the level of certain motor abilities (acceleration and agility, the explosive strength of arms, and take-off power) of young elite European female basketball players. We also wanted to establish whether there were any differences between 3 groups of female basketball players who differed in terms of their playing performance. The sample of subjects consists of 65 female basketball players aged 14.49 (± 0.61) years who were divided into 3 groups (divisions A, B, and C of the European Championships). We compare the groups by using 8 motor tests. p Values <0.05 were considered statistically significant. The results show that the division C players achieved below-average results in all tests and thus differ from the players from divisions A and B whose test results were relatively homogeneous. The division C players differ from those from divisions A and B mainly in the 6 × 5-m sprint dribble (discriminant ratio coefficients [DRC] = 0.435), medicine ball throw (DRC = 0.375), and 20-m sprint (DRC = 0.203). Discriminatory power in the 6 × 5-m sprint dribble and 20-m sprint tests is preserved even after eliminating the effect of body height. We assume that, besides the deficit in body height and training status, this is also 1 of the key reasons for these players' lower playing efficiency compared to those from divisions A and B. We hope the findings of this study will enable the generation of model values, which can assist basketball coaches for this age category in basketball clubs, high schools, national teams, and basketball camps.

Impact of fatigue on the position of the release arm and shoulder girdle over a longer shooting distance for an elite basketball player.

The purpose of this case study is to establish how a gradual increase in fatigue affects the position of the arms and shoulders during a long shot in a basketball game. For this purpose, Primoz Brezec, an elite National Basketball Association player, performed a total of 7 series of 20 shots from a distance of 7.24 m. The subject performed a special basketball motor task between individual series' of shots. The fatigue gradually increased with each motor task, and in the meantime, the subject's heart rate (HR) and blood lactate concentration (LA) were measured. The height of each jump during the shot at the basket was measured, and all shots were recorded using a system of 3 digital cameras operating at a frequency of 50 Hz. Thereafter, a kinematic analysis was applied to calculate the height of the shoulder and wrist of the release arm, as well as the elbow and upper arm angles, with regard to the vertical line. The study results reveal statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) between the series of throws in all measured variables. The heights of the shoulder axis and of the wrist both decrease with growing fatigue. This is particularly apparent in the last series, i.e., in the conditions of maximum fatigue (HR = 96% HRpeak; LA = 9.7 mmolxL). Both measured angles decrease drastically in the last series of shots. The results of the study clearly demonstrate changes in the shooting technique as a consequence of moderate and, in particular, heavy fatigue. The findings also suggest the need for basketball coaches and basketball conditioning coaches to include moderate- and high-intensity exercise in their shooting practice sessions.