Genetic influences on the acquisition and inhibition of fear.

As a variant of the Pavlovian fear conditioning paradigm the conditional discrimination design allows for a detailed investigation of fear acquisition and fear inhibition. Measuring fear-potentiated startle responses, we investigated the influence of two genetic polymorphisms (5-HTTLPR and COMT Val(158)Met) on fear acquisition and fear inhibition which are considered to be critical mechanisms for the etiology and maintenance of anxiety disorders. 5-HTTLPR s-allele carriers showed a more stable potentiation of the startle response during fear acquisition. Homozygous COMT Met-allele carriers, which had demonstrated delayed extinction in previous investigations, show deficient fear inhibition in presence of a learned safety signal. Thus, our results provide further evidence that 5-HTTLPR and COMT Val(158)Met genotypes influence the vulnerability for the development of anxiety disorders via different mechanisms.

Kidney protein profiling of Wilms' tumor patients by analysis of formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue samples.

UNLABELLED: Wilms' tumor (nephroblastoma, WT) is the most frequent renal cancer in children. However, molecular details leading to WT have not been characterized sufficiently yet. Proteomic studies might provide new insights but are hampered by limited availability of fresh frozen tissue specimen. Therefore, we tested formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissue sections routinely collected for pathological inspection for their use in in-depth-proteomic analyses of WT samples in comparison to fresh frozen specimen. The overlap of the proteins identified was over 65%. Thus we used FFPE material from 7 patients for tandem mass spectrometry based comparison of the proteomes of WT and healthy renal tissues. We detected 262 proteins, which were differentially expressed in tumor compared to healthy renal tissue. The majority of these proteins displayed lower levels in the tumor tissue and only 30% higher levels. For selected candidates data were confirmed by immunohistochemical staining. Correlation analysis of blastemal proportions in WT and protein intensities revealed candidates for tumor stratification. CONCLUSION: This proof of principle proteomic study of FFPE tissue sections from WT patients demonstrates that these archived tissues constitute a valuable resource for larger in-depth proteomic studies to identify markers to follow chemotherapy efficiency or for stratification of tumor subtypes.

Meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies identifies six new Loci for serum calcium concentrations.

Calcium is vital to the normal functioning of multiple organ systems and its serum concentration is tightly regulated. Apart from CASR, the genes associated with serum calcium are largely unknown. We conducted a genome-wide association meta-analysis of 39,400 individuals from 17 population-based cohorts and investigated the 14 most strongly associated loci in ≤ 21,679 additional individuals. Seven loci (six new regions) in association with serum calcium were identified and replicated. Rs1570669 near CYP24A1 (P = 9.1E-12), rs10491003 upstream of GATA3 (P = 4.8E-09) and rs7481584 in CARS (P = 1.2E-10) implicate regions involved in Mendelian calcemic disorders: Rs1550532 in DGKD (P = 8.2E-11), also associated with bone density, and rs7336933 near DGKH/KIAA0564 (P = 9.1E-10) are near genes that encode distinct isoforms of diacylglycerol kinase. Rs780094 is in GCKR. We characterized the expression of these genes in gut, kidney, and bone, and demonstrate modulation of gene expression in bone in response to dietary calcium in mice. Our results shed new light on the genetics of calcium homeostasis.

Comparison of genotyping using pooled DNA samples (allelotyping) and individual genotyping using the affymetrix genome-wide human SNP array 6.0.

BACKGROUND: Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) using array-based genotyping technology are widely used to identify genetic loci associated with complex diseases or other phenotypes. The costs of GWAS projects based on individual genotyping are still comparatively high and increase with the size of study populations. Genotyping using pooled DNA samples, as also being referred as to allelotyping approach, offers an alternative at affordable costs. In the present study, data from 100 DNA samples individually genotyped with the Affymetrix Genome-Wide Human SNP Array 6.0 were used to estimate the error of the pooling approach by comparing the results with those obtained using the same array type but DNA pools each composed of 50 of the same samples. Newly developed and established methods for signal intensity correction were applied. Furthermore, the relative allele intensity signals (RAS) obtained by allelotyping were compared to the corresponding values derived from individual genotyping. Similarly, differences in RAS values between pools were determined and compared. RESULTS: Regardless of the intensity correction method applied, the pooling-specific error of the pool intensity values was larger for single pools than for the comparison of the intensity values of two pools, which reflects the scenario of a case-control study. Using 50 pooled samples and analyzing 10,000 SNPs with a minor allele frequency of >1% and applying the best correction method for the corresponding type of comparison, the 90% quantile (median) of the pooling-specific absolute error of the RAS values for single sub-pools and the SNP-specific difference in allele frequency comparing two pools was 0.064 (0.026) and 0.056 (0.021), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Correction of the RAS values reduced the error of the RAS values when analyzing single pool intensities. We developed a new correction method with high accuracy but low computational costs. Correction of RAS, however, only marginally reduced the error of true differences between two sample groups and those obtained by allelotyping. Exclusion of SNPs with a minor allele frequency of ≤ 1% notably reduced the pooling-specific error. Our findings allow for improving the estimation of the pooling-specific error and may help in designing allelotyping studies using the Affymetrix Genome-Wide Human SNP Array 6.0.

Replication of the association of chromosomal region 9p21.3 with generalized aggressive periodontitis (gAgP) using an independent case-control cohort.

BACKGROUND: The human chromosomal region 9p21.3 has been shown to be strongly associated with Coronary Heart Disease (CHD) in several Genome-wide Association Studies (GWAS). Recently, this region has also been shown to be associated with Aggressive Periodontitis (AgP), strengthening the hypothesis that the established epidemiological association between periodontitis and CHD is caused by a shared genetic background, in addition to common environmental and behavioural risk factors. However, the size of the analyzed cohorts in this primary analysis was small compared to other association studies on complex diseases. Using our own AgP cohort, we attempted to confirm the described associations for the chromosomal region 9p21.3. METHODS: We analyzed our cohort consisting of patients suffering from the most severe form of AgP, generalized AgP (gAgP) (n = 130) and appropriate periodontally healthy control individuals (n = 339) by genotyping four tagging SNPs (rs2891168, rs1333042, rs1333048 and rs496892), located in the chromosomal region 9p21.3, that have been associated with AgP. RESULTS: The results confirmed significant associations between three of the four SNPs and gAgP. The combination of our results with those from the study which described this association for the first time in a meta-analysis of the four tagging SNPs produced clearly lower p-values compared with the results of each individual study. According to these results, the most plausible genetic model for the association of all four tested SNPs with gAgP seems to be the multiplicative one. CONCLUSION: We positively replicated the finding of an association between the chromosomal region 9p21.3 and gAgP. This result strengthens support for the hypothesis that shared susceptibility genes within this chromosomal locus might be involved in the pathogenesis of both CHD and gAgP.

NikR mediates nickel-responsive transcriptional repression of the Helicobacter pylori outer membrane proteins FecA3 (HP1400) and FrpB4 (HP1512).

The transition metal nickel plays an important role in gastric colonization and persistence of the important human pathogen Helicobacter pylori, as it is the cofactor of the abundantly produced acid resistance factor urease. Nickel uptake through the inner membrane is mediated by the NixA protein, and the expression of NixA is controlled by the NikR regulatory protein. Here we report that NikR also controls the nickel-responsive expression of the FecA3 (HP1400) and FrpB4 (HP1512) outer membrane proteins (OMPs), as well as the nickel-responsive expression of an ExbB-ExbD-TonB system, which may function in energization of outer membrane transport. Transcription and expression of the frpB4 and fecA3 genes were repressed by nickel in wild-type H. pylori 26695, but they were independent of nickel and derepressed in an isogenic nikR mutant. Both the frpB4 and fecA3 genes were transcribed from a promoter directly upstream of their start codon. Regulation by NikR was mediated via nickel-dependent binding to specific operators overlapping either the +1 or -10 sequence in the frpB4 and fecA3 promoters, respectively, and these operators contained sequences resembling the proposed H. pylori NikR recognition sequence (TATWATT-N(11)-AATWATA). Transcription of the HP1339-1340-1341 operon encoding the ExbB2-ExbD2-TonB2 complex was also regulated by nickel and NikR, but not by Fur and iron. In conclusion, H. pylori NikR controls nickel-responsive expression of the HP1400 (FecA3) and HP1512 (FrpB4) OMPs. We hypothesize that these two NikR-regulated OMPs may participate in the uptake of complexed nickel ions and that this process is energized by the NikR-regulated ExbB2-ExbD2-TonB2 system, another example of the specific adaptation of H. pylori to the gastric lifestyle.

The nickel-responsive regulator NikR controls activation and repression of gene transcription in Helicobacter pylori.

The NikR protein is a nickel-dependent regulatory protein which is a member of the ribbon-helix-helix family of transcriptional regulators. The gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori expresses a NikR ortholog, which was previously shown to mediate regulation of metal metabolism and urease expression, but the mechanism governing the diverse regulatory effects had not been described until now. In this study it is demonstrated that NikR can regulate H. pylori nickel metabolism by directly controlling transcriptional repression of NixA-mediated nickel uptake and transcriptional induction of urease expression. Mutation of the nickel uptake gene nixA in an H. pylori 26695 nikR mutant restored the ability to grow in Brucella media supplemented with 200 microM NiCl2 but did not restore nickel-dependent induction of urease expression. Nickel-dependent binding of NikR to the promoter of the nixA gene resulted in nickel-repressed transcription, whereas nickel-dependent binding of NikR to the promoter of the ureA gene resulted in nickel-induced transcription. Subsequent analysis of NikR binding to the nixA and ureA promoters showed that the regulatory effect was dependent on the location of the NikR-recognized binding sequence. NikR recognized the region from -13 to +21 of the nixA promoter, encompassing the +1 and -10 region, and this binding resulted in repression of nixA transcription. In contrast, NikR bound to the region from -56 to -91 upstream of the ureA promoter, resulting in induction of urease transcription. In conclusion, the NikR protein is able to function both as a repressor and as an activator of gene transcription, depending on the position of the binding site.

Iron-responsive regulation of the Helicobacter pylori iron-cofactored superoxide dismutase SodB is mediated by Fur.

Maintaining iron homeostasis is a necessity for all living organisms, as free iron augments the generation of reactive oxygen species like superoxide anions, at the risk of subsequent lethal cellular damage. The iron-responsive regulator Fur controls iron metabolism in many bacteria, including the important human pathogen Helicobacter pylori, and thus is directly or indirectly involved in regulation of oxidative stress defense. Here we demonstrate that Fur is a direct regulator of the H. pylori iron-cofactored superoxide dismutase SodB, which is essential for the defense against toxic superoxide radicals. Transcription of the sodB gene was iron induced in H. pylori wild-type strain 26695, resulting in expression of the SodB protein in iron-replete conditions but an absence of expression in iron-restricted conditions. Mutation of the fur gene resulted in constitutive, iron-independent expression of SodB. Recombinant H. pylori Fur protein bound with low affinity to the sodB promoter region, but addition of the iron substitute Mn2+ abolished binding. The operator sequence of the iron-free form of Fur, as identified by DNase I footprinting, was located directly upstream of the sodB gene at positions -5 to -47 from the transcription start site. The direct role of Fur in regulation of the H. pylori sodB gene contrasts with the small-RNA-mediated sodB regulation observed in Escherichia coli. In conclusion, H. pylori Fur is a versatile regulator involved in many pathways essential for gastric colonization, including superoxide stress defense.

Transcriptional profiling of Helicobacter pylori Fur- and iron-regulated gene expression.

Intracellular iron homeostasis is a necessity for almost all living organisms, since both iron restriction and iron overload can result in cell death. The ferric uptake regulator protein, Fur, controls iron homeostasis in most Gram-negative bacteria. In the human gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori, Fur is thought to have acquired extra functions to compensate for the relative paucity of regulatory genes. To identify H. pylori genes regulated by iron and Fur, we used DNA array-based transcriptional profiling with RNA isolated from H. pylori 26695 wild-type and fur mutant cells grown in iron-restricted and iron-replete conditions. Sixteen genes encoding proteins involved in metal metabolism, nitrogen metabolism, motility, cell wall synthesis and cofactor synthesis displayed iron-dependent Fur-repressed expression. Conversely, 16 genes encoding proteins involved in iron storage, respiration, energy metabolism, chemotaxis, and oxygen scavenging displayed iron-induced Fur-dependent expression. Several Fur-regulated genes have been previously shown to be essential for acid resistance or gastric colonization in animal models, such as those encoding the hydrogenase and superoxide dismutase enzymes. Overall, there was a partial overlap between the sets of genes regulated by Fur and those previously identified as growth-phase, iron or acid regulated. Regulatory patterns were confirmed for five selected genes using Northern hybridization. In conclusion, H. pylori Fur is a versatile regulator involved in many pathways essential for gastric colonization. These findings further delineate the central role of Fur in regulating the unique capacity of H. pylori to colonize the human stomach.

NikR-mediated regulation of Helicobacter pylori acid adaptation.

Nickel is the cofactor of the Helicobacter pylori urease enzyme, a factor essential for the chronic colonization of the acidic hostile environment in the human stomach. The NikR regulatory protein directly controls urease expression and regulates the uptake of nickel, and is also able to regulate the expression of other regulatory proteins including the iron-responsive regulator Fur. Through regulatory crosstalk and overlapping regulons, the NikR protein controls the expression of many systems important for colonization and acid adaptation. Despite the paucity of regulatory proteins, this enables H. pylori to optimally adapt to conditions in the stomach, making it one of the most successful human pathogens.