Cytosolic acidification and oxidation are the toxic mechanisms of SO2 in Arabidopsis guard cells.

SO2/H2SO3 can damage plants. However, its toxic mechanism has still been controversial. Two models have been proposed, cytosolic acidification model and cellular oxidation model. Here, we assessed the toxic mechanism of H2SO3 in three cell types of Arabidopsis thaliana, mesophyll cells, guard cells and petal cells. The sensitivity of guard cells of CHLORIDE CHANNEL a (CLCa)-knockout mutants to H2SO3 was significantly lower than those of wildtype plants. Expression of other CLC genes in mesophyll cells and petal cells were different from guard cells. Treatment with antioxidant, disodium 4,5-dihydroxy-1,3-benzenedisulfonate (tiron), increased the median lethal concentration (LC50) of H2SO3 in guard cells indicating the involvement of cellular oxidation, while the effect was negligible in mesophyll cells and petal cells. These results indicate that there are two toxic mechanisms of SO2 to Arabidopsis cells: cytosolic acidification and cellular oxidation, and the toxic mechanism may vary among cell types.

Proton exchange by the vacuolar nitrate transporter CLCa is required for plant growth and nitrogen use efficiency.

Nitrate is a major nutrient and osmoticum for plants. To deal with fluctuating nitrate availability in soils, plants store this nutrient in their vacuoles. Chloride channel a (CLCa), a 2NO3-/1H+ exchanger localized to the vacuole in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), ensures this storage process. CLCa belongs to the CLC family, which includes anion/proton exchangers and anion channels. A mutation in a glutamate residue conserved across CLC exchangers is likely responsible for the conversion of exchangers to channels. Here, we show that CLCa with a mutation in glutamate 203 (E203) behaves as an anion channel in its native membrane. We introduced the CLCaE203A point mutation to investigate its physiological importance into the Arabidopsis clca knockout mutant. These CLCaE203A mutants displayed a growth deficit linked to the disruption of water homeostasis. Additionally, CLCaE203A expression failed to complement the defect in nitrate accumulation of clca and favored higher N-assimilation at the vegetative stage. Further analyses at the post-flowering stages indicated that CLCaE203A expression results in an increase in N uptake allocation to seeds, leading to a higher nitrogen use efficiency compared to the wild-type. Altogether, these results point to the critical function of the CLCa exchanger on the vacuole for plant metabolism and development.

Phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate-binding protein AtPH1 controls the localization of the metal transporter NRAMP1 in Arabidopsis.

"Too much of a good thing" perfectly describes the dilemma that living organisms face with metals. The tight control of metal homeostasis in cells depends on the trafficking of metal transporters between membranes of different compartments. However, the mechanisms regulating the location of transport proteins are still largely unknown. Developing Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings require the natural resistance-associated macrophage proteins (NRAMP3 and NRAMP4) transporters to remobilize iron from seed vacuolar stores and thereby acquire photosynthetic competence. Here, we report that mutations in the pleckstrin homology (PH) domain-containing protein AtPH1 rescue the iron-deficient phenotype of nramp3nramp4 Our results indicate that AtPH1 binds phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate (PI3P) in vivo and acts in the late endosome compartment. We further show that loss of AtPH1 function leads to the mislocalization of the metal uptake transporter NRAMP1 to the vacuole, providing a rationale for the reversion of nramp3nramp4 phenotypes. This work identifies a PH domain protein as a regulator of plant metal transporter localization, providing evidence that PH domain proteins may be effectors of PI3P for protein sorting.

Comparative large scale characterization of plant versus mammal proteins reveals similar and idiosyncratic N-α-acetylation features.

N-terminal modifications play a major role in the fate of proteins in terms of activity, stability, or subcellular compartmentalization. Such modifications remain poorly described and badly characterized in proteomic studies, and only a few comparison studies among organisms have been made available so far. Recent advances in the field now allow the enrichment and selection of N-terminal peptides in the course of proteome-wide mass spectrometry analyses. These targeted approaches unravel as a result the extent and nature of the protein N-terminal modifications. Here, we aimed at studying such modifications in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana to compare these results with those obtained from a human sample analyzed in parallel. We applied large scale analysis to compile robust conclusions on both data sets. Our data show strong convergence of the characterized modifications especially for protein N-terminal methionine excision, co-translational N-α-acetylation, or N-myristoylation between animal and plant kingdoms. Because of the convergence of both the substrates and the N-α-acetylation machinery, it was possible to identify the N-acetyltransferases involved in such modifications for a small number of model plants. Finally, a high proportion of nuclear-encoded chloroplast proteins feature post-translational N-α-acetylation of the mature protein after removal of the transit peptide. Unlike animals, plants feature in a dedicated pathway for post-translational acetylation of organelle-targeted proteins. The corresponding machinery is yet to be discovered.

Interplay between N-terminal methionine excision and FtsH protease is essential for normal chloroplast development and function in Arabidopsis.

N-terminal methionine excision (NME) is the earliest modification affecting most proteins. All compartments in which protein synthesis occurs contain dedicated NME machinery. Developmental defects induced in Arabidopsis thaliana by NME inhibition are accompanied by increased proteolysis. Although increasing evidence supports a connection between NME and protein degradation, the identity of the proteases involved remains unknown. Here we report that chloroplastic NME (cNME) acts upstream of the FtsH protease complex. Developmental defects and higher sensitivity to photoinhibition associated with the ftsh2 mutation were abolished when cNME was inhibited. Moreover, the accumulation of D1 and D2 proteins of the photosystem II reaction center was always dependent on the prior action of cNME. Under standard light conditions, inhibition of chloroplast translation induced accumulation of correctly NME-processed D1 and D2 in a ftsh2 background, implying that the latter is involved in protein quality control, and that correctly NME-processed D1 and D2 are turned over primarily by the thylakoid FtsH protease complex. By contrast, inhibition of cNME compromises the specific N-terminal recognition of D1 and D2 by the FtsH complex, whereas the unprocessed forms are recognized by other proteases. Our results highlight the tight functional interplay between NME and the FtsH protease complex in the chloroplast.

Dynamics of post-translational modifications and protein stability in the stroma of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii chloroplasts.

The proteome of any system is a dynamic entity dependent on the intracellular concentration of the entire set of expressed proteins. In turn, this whole protein concentration will be reliant on the stability/turnover of each protein as dictated by their relative rates of synthesis and degradation. In this study, we have investigated the dynamics of the stromal proteome in the model organism Chlamydomonas reinhardtii by characterizing the half-life of the whole set of proteins. 2-DE stromal proteins profiling was set up and coupled with MS analyses. These identifications featuring an average of 26% sequence coverage and eight non-redundant peptides per protein have been obtained for 600 independent samples related to 253 distinct spots. An interactive map of the global stromal proteome, of 274 distinct protein variants is now available on-line at http://www.isv.cnrs-gif.fr/gel2dv2/. N-α-terminal-Acetylation (NTA) was noticed to be the most frequently detectable post-translational modification, and new experimental data related to the chloroplastic transit peptide cleavage site was obtained. Using this data set supplemented with series of pulse-chase experiments, elements directing the relationship between half-life and N-termini were analyzed. Positive correlation between NTA and protein half-life suggests that NTA could contribute to protein stabilization in the stroma.

Cotranslational proteolysis dominates glutathione homeostasis to support proper growth and development.

The earliest proteolytic event affecting most proteins is the excision of the initiating Met (NME). This is an essential and ubiquitous cotranslational process tightly regulated in all eukaryotes. Currently, the effects of NME on unknown complex cellular networks and the ways in which its inhibition leads to developmental defects and cell growth arrest remain poorly understood. Here, we provide insight into the earliest molecular mechanisms associated with the inhibition of the NME process in Arabidopsis thaliana. We demonstrate that the developmental defects induced by NME inhibition are caused by an increase in cellular proteolytic activity, primarily induced by an increase in the number of proteins targeted for rapid degradation. This deregulation drives, through the increase of the free amino acids pool, a perturbation of the glutathione homeostasis, which corresponds to the earliest limiting, reversible step promoting the phenotype. We demonstrate that these effects are universally conserved and that the reestablishment of the appropriate glutathione status restores growth and proper development in various organisms. Finally, we describe a novel integrated model in which NME, protein N-alpha-acylation, proteolysis, and glutathione homeostasis operate in a sequentially regulated mechanism that directs both growth and development.

Extent of N-terminal modifications in cytosolic proteins from eukaryotes.

Most proteins in all organisms undergo crucial N-terminal modifications involving N-terminal methionine excision, N-alpha-acetylation or N-myristoylation (N-Myr), or S-palmitoylation. We investigated the occurrence of these poorly annotated but essential modifications in proteomes, focusing on eukaryotes. Experimental data for the N-terminal sequences of animal, fungi, and archaeal proteins, were used to build dedicated predictive modules in a new software. In vitro N-Myr experiments were performed with both plant and animal N-myristoyltransferases, for accurate prediction of the modification. N-terminal modifications from the fully sequenced genome of Arabidopsis thaliana were determined by MS. We identified 105 new modified protein N-termini, which were used to check the accuracy of predictive data. An accuracy of more than 95% was achieved, demonstrating (i) overall conservation of the specificity of the modification machinery in higher eukaryotes and (ii) robustness of the prediction tool. Predictions were made for various proteomes. Proteins that had undergone both N-terminal methionine (Met) cleavage and N-acetylation were found to be strongly overrepresented among the most abundant proteins, in contrast to those retaining their genuine unblocked Met. Here we propose that the nature of the second residue of an ORF is a key marker of the abundance of the mature protein in eukaryotes.

Radiolabeling for two-dimensional gel analysis.

Radiolabeling is a highly sensitive method for protein detection, which is easily performed by the incorporation of radioactive amino acids into proteins. This makes radiolabeling a method of choice for visualizing proteins separated on two-dimensional (2-D) gels. This chapter presents protocols to determine in vivo labeling conditions and to label proteins for the comparison of protein samples by means of 2-D gel electrophoresis.

Alternative and effective proteomic analysis in Arabidopsis.

Various functional genomics platforms are required to define the phenotype associated with a mutant. Global protein analyses may be included in any study. We describe here a rapid method of protein sample preparation and analysis, suitable for all laboratories and using Arabidopsis plantlets as the starting material. This reliable and reproducible method for high yield protein extraction from small amounts of material can be used on even the most recalcitrant tissues. The proteins extracted are suitable for many types of protein analysis, including nondenaturing investigations. This method was validated by a rigorous 2-DE approach, coupled with unambiguous LC-MS/MS identifications featuring strong sequence coverage (average of 26% with eight different peptides/spot protein). The reproducibility of the method was demonstrated by multiple protein identifications from identical series of spots. An interactive map (http://www.isv.cnrsgif.fr/gel2d/), including 435 protein variants showed that (i) 38% of the proteins were yet unreported, (ii) reduced subfractionation, (iii) had frequent protein modifications (average of two spots/protein entry), and (iv) underwent no major proteolytic events other than leader peptide cleavage. Finally, a simple mobility shift method for the large subunit of RuBisCo (LS) in the first dimension made it possible to characterize previously masked protein spots.

Yeast proteome map (update 2006).

To improve the potential of two-dimensional gel electrophoresis for proteomic investigations in yeast we have undertaken the systematic identification of Saccharomyces cerevisiae proteins separated on 2-D gels. We report here the identification of 187 novel protein spots. They were identified by two methods, mass spectrometry and gene inactivation. These identifications extend the number of protein spots identified on our yeast 2-D proteome map to 602, i.e. nearly half the detectable spots of the proteome map. These spots correspond to 417 different proteins. The reference map and the list of identified proteins can be accessed on the Yeast Protein Map server (www.ibgc.u-bordeaux2.fr/YPM).

15N-metabolic labeling for comparative plasma membrane proteomics in Arabidopsis cells.

An important goal for proteomic studies is the global comparison of proteomes from different genotypes, tissues, or physiological conditions. This has so far been mostly achieved by densitometric comparison of spot intensities after protein separation by 2-DE. However, the physicochemical properties of membrane proteins preclude the use of 2-DE. Here, we describe the use of in vivo labeling by the stable isotope 15N as an alternative approach for comparative membrane proteomic studies in plant cells. We confirm that 15N-metabolic labeling of proteins is possible and efficient in Arabidopsis suspension cells. Quantification of 14N versus 15N MS signals reflects the relative abundance of 14N and 15N proteins in the sample analyzed. We describe the use of 15N-metabolic labeling to perform a partial comparative analysis of Arabidopsis cells following cadmium exposure. By focusing our attention on plasma membrane proteins, we were able to confidently identify proteins showing up to 5-fold regulation compared to unexposed cells. This study provides a proof of principle that 15N-metabolic labeling is a useful technique for comparative membrane proteome studies.

Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis of total yeast proteins.

Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE) offers the opportunity of separating several hundred proteins from a total yeast cellular extract. A detailed description is provided here of the different steps required for the separation and visualization of radiolabeled yeast proteins on high-resolution (24 cm x 20 cm) 2-D gels. Two methods of protein separation are described. They essentially differ by the way proteins are separated in the first dimension. One is based on the use of isoelectric focusing (IEF) gels (carrier ampholytes) and the other on the use of ready-made IPG gels (immobilines). These methods allow separating soluble proteins from a total yeast cellular extract with an isoelectric point ranging between pH 4.0 and 7.0 and a molecular weight ranging between 15,000 and 150,000.

Functional and developmental impact of cytosolic protein N-terminal methionine excision in Arabidopsis.

Protein N-terminal methionine (Met) excision (NME) is carried out by two types of Met aminopeptidases (MAPs), MAP1 and MAP2, in eukaryotes. Three enzymes, MAP1A, MAP2A, and MAP2B, have been identified in the cytoplasm of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). MAP transcript quantification revealed a predominance of MAP2B and developmental and organ-specific regulation of both MAP1A and MAP2s. By combining reverse genetics and reverse chemogenomics in transgenic plant lines, we have devised specific and reversible switches for the investigation of the role of cytoplasmic NME in Arabidopsis and of the respective contributions of the two types of cytoplasmic MAPs throughout development. dsRNA interference and knockout (KO) plant lines targeting either MAP1A alone or both MAP2s simultaneously were constructed and shown to display wild-type phenotypes. In the MAP1A KO context, modulating MAP2 activity by treatment with various concentrations of the specific drug fumagillin impaired plant development, with particularly strong effects on the root system. Reciprocally, complete MAP2 inhibition in various MAP1A knocked-down genetic backgrounds also generated a gradient of developmentally abnormal plants, but the effects on the root system were milder than in the KO context. In the absence of MAP2 activity, the severity of the phenotype in the MAP1A knocked-down lines was correlated to the extent of MAP1A mRNA accumulation. Complete cytoplasmic NME inactivation blocked development after plant germination. Thus, in plants, (1) cytoplasmic NME is essential; (2) MAP1A and MAP2s are functionally interchangeable, which is not the case in fungi and animals, as a complete block of either MAP-type activity does not cause any visible molecular or phenotypic effect; and (3) a minimal level of cytoplasmic MAP is required for normal development.

Differential gel exposure, a new methodology for the two-dimensional comparison of protein samples.

We describe a novel methodology for the comparison of protein samples called differential gel exposure (DifExpo). This method is based on the coelectrophoresis on a two-dimensional (2-D) gel of two protein samples. The samples are differentiated from each other by in vivo radiolabelling, using (14)C- and (3)H-isotopes. After 2-D separation and transfer on a polyvinylidene difluoride membrane, the (3)H/(14)C ratio of each protein spot is determined by exposure to two types of imaging plates, one sensitive to (14)C and the other to both (14)C and (3)H. We showed that DifExpo allows us to compare the cellular levels of several hundred proteins of the yeast proteome. Its sensitivity is comparable to silver staining. We also showed that it can be used to investigate changes in the rate of synthesis of individual proteins.

Identification in Saccharomyces cerevisiae of a new stable variant of alkyl hydroperoxide reductase 1 (Ahp1) induced by oxidative stress.

Yeasts lacking cytoplasmic superoxide dismutase (Cu,Zn-SOD) activity are permanently subjected to oxidative stress. We used two-dimensional PAGE to examine the proteome pattern of Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains lacking Cu,Zn-SOD. We found a new stable form of alkyl hydroperoxide reductase 1 (Ahp1) with a lower isoelectric point. This form was also present in wild type strains after treatment with tert-butyl hydroperoxide. In vitro enzyme assays showed that Ahp1p had lower specific activity in strains lacking Cu,Zn-SOD. We studied three mutants presenting a reduced production of the low pI variant under oxidative stress conditions. Two of the mutants (C62S and S59D) were totally inactive, thus suggesting that the acidic form of Ahp1p may only appear when the enzyme is functional. The other mutant (S59A) was active in vitro and was more resistant to inactivation by tert-butyl hydroperoxide than the wild type enzyme. Furthermore, the inactivation of Ahp1p in vitro is correlated with its conversion to the low pI form. These results suggest that in vivo during some particular oxidative stress (alkyl hydroperoxide treatment or lack of Cu,Zn-SOD activity but not hydrogen peroxide treatment), the catalytic cysteine of Ahp1p is more oxidized than cysteine-sulfenic acid (a natural occurring intermediate of the enzymatic reaction) and that cysteine-sulfinic acid or cysteine-sulfonic acid variant may be inactive.