Philippine guidelines on periodic health examination: Pediatric immunization

Executive Summary@#This Clinical Practice Guideline for the Periodic Health Examination (Pediatric Immunization) is an output from the joint undertaking of the Department of Health and National Institutes of Health-Institute of Clinical Epidemiology. This clinical practice guideline is a systematic synthesis of scientific evidence on immunization for the prevention of human papilloma virus (HPV) infection, influenza, typhoid fever, Japanese encephalitis, poliomyelitis, meningococcal infection, and Hepatitis A in the pediatric population. The CPG provides nine (9) recommendations on prioritized questions regarding the relevant vaccines for preventing these seven (7) diseases. Recommendations are based on the appraisal of the best available evidence on each of the eight identified clinical questions. The CPG is intended to be used by general practitioners and specialists in the primary care setting, policy makers, employers and administrators, allied health practitioners and even patients. The guideline development process followed the widely accepted Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation or the GRADE approach including GRADE Adolopment, a systematic process of adapting evidence summaries and the GRADE Evidence to Decision (EtD) framework. 1,2 It includes 1) identification of critical questions and critical outcomes, 2) retrieval of current evidence, 3) assessment and synthesis of the evidence base for these critical questions, 4) formulation of draft recommendations, 5) convening of a multi-sectoral stakeholder panel to discuss values and preferences and assess the strength of the recommendations, and 6) planning for dissemination, implementation, impact evaluation and updating. The recommendations in this CPG shall hold and will be updated after 3 years or when new evidence arise.

2021 clinical practice guidelines in the evaluation and management of pediatric community-acquired pneumonia

Preface@#The Clinical Practice Guidelines (CPG) for the Diagnosis and Management of Pediatric Community-Acquired Pneumonia (PCAP) was initiated by the Philippine Academy of Pediatric Pulmonologists, Inc. (PAPP) and the Pediatric Infectious Disease Society of the Philippines (PIDSP), in cooperation with Philippine Pediatric Society, Inc. (PPS) way back in 2004. Several CPG updates were then undertaken by the PAPP PCAP CPG Task Force from 2008 to 2016. Clinically-relevant research questions were answered with recent and current recommendations based on evidence from local and international data. The 2021 PCAP CPG initiative was envisioned in March 2018 upon the recommendations of the 2018 PAPP Board for the purpose of updating the evidence in the PCAP CPG 2016 clinical questions. This led to the collaboration of PAPP and PIDSP to develop this CPG. Individual members were identified from each society as content experts to form the Steering Committee along with a clinical epidemiologist and technical writer as review experts. The committee identified the scope and target end user of the CPG as well as additional clinical questions to be included in the 2021 update aside from the questions on the previous CPGs. Selected members from the two societies formed the Technical Working Group (TWG) who did the literature search, appraisal of evidences, and formulation of recommendations. These recommendations were then presented to the stakeholders who became part of the consensus panel. There was no identified conflict of interest among the CPG developers, TWG members and stakeholders. A survey to determine potential competing interests were conducted during the development of this CPG. This initiative was fully funded by the PAPP and PIDSP societies. The 2021 PCAP CPG significantly differs from the previous CPGs in several aspects. First, the current guideline is a consensus between two pediatric societies. Second, much of the literature review has been centered on meta-analyses or systematic reviews instead of individual studies. Finally, appraisal of published literature was based on Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) criteria. Such methodological differences may provide difficulties in defining evolution of care through the years. As identified in the previous CPG updates, there is lack of local data hence most of the evidences gathered came from international studies. The applicability of such data to the local setting needs to be critically assessed for its value and relevance. Corollary to this, several gaps in knowledge are identified and these may serve as a guide for future research.

Philippine pediatric COVID-19 living clinical practice guidelines as of March 2022

Executive Summary@#The Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has triggered a global crisis and has affected millions of people worldwide. With the evolution of the different variants of concern, the incidence of COVID- 19 in the pediatric population has risen. The Surveillance and Analysis of COVID-19 in Children Nationwide (SALVACION) Registry, developed by the Pediatric Infectious Disease Society of the Philippines (PIDSP) and the Philippine Pediatric Society (PPS), has reported 3,221 cases as of March 31, 2022, with 90.4% requiring hospitalization and 36.2% with moderate to critical disease severity. Given the magnitude of the impact of COVID-19, with most of the clinical recommendations available designed towards adult patients, there was an urgent need for clinicians, public health officials and the government to also prioritize evidence-based clinical practice guidelines for the pediatric population. Hence, the development of the Philippine Pediatric COVID-19 Living Clinical Practice Guidelines was conceptualized. This independent project, funded and supported by the PPS and PIDSP, aimed to formulate up-to-date, evidence-based recommendations on the treatment, diagnosis, infection prevention and control of COVID-19 in children. Following the standard CPG development process outlined in the DOH Manual for CPG Development and the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) methodology, 15 evidence summaries and 24 recommendations were generated by 12 consensus panelists representing their specific health organizations and institutions.

Genetic variants associated with poor responsiveness to sulfonylureas in Filipinos with type 2 diabetes mellitus / Journal of the ASEAN Federation of Endocrine Societies

Introduction@# Sulfonylureas (SUs) are commonly used drugs for type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in the Philippines. This study aimed to associate genetic variants with poor response to gliclazide and glimepiride among Filipinos.@*Methodology@#Two independent, dichotomous longitudinal substudies enrolled 139 and 113 participants in the gliclazide and glimepiride substudies, respectively. DNA from blood samples underwent customized genotyping for candidate genes using microarray. Allelic and genotypic features and clinical associations were determined using exact statistical methods.@*Results@#Three months after sulfonylurea monotherapy, 18 (13%) were found to be poorly responsive to gliclazide, while 7 (6%) had poor response to glimepiride. Seven genetic variants were nominally associated (p<0.05) with poor gliclazide response, while three variants were nominally associated with poor glimepiride response. For gliclazide response, carboxypeptidase-associated variants (rs319952 and rs393994 of AGBL4 and rs2229437 of PRCP) had the highest genotypic association; other variants include rs9806699, rs7119, rs6465084 and rs1234315. For glimepiride response, 2 variants were nominally associated: CLCN6-NPPA-MTHFR gene cluster – rs5063 and rs17367504 – and rs2299267 from the PON2 loci.@*Conclusion@#Genetic variants were found to have a nominal association with sulfonylurea response among Filipinos. These findings can guide for future study directions on pharmacotherapeutic applications for sulfonylurea treatment in this population.

Salud pública abierta: el camino para no dejar a nadie atrás

[RESUMEN]. En el contexto de la globalización, la salud pública requiere una cooperación continua entre todos los actores y un flujo de datos e información que facilite y apalanque esa cooperación. Sin embargo, existen aún diversas restricciones que limitan o imposibilitan el acceso a ella y su uso en beneficio de las sociedades. Debido a esto, se propone la adopción de la salud pública abierta y se exploran sus implicaciones y alcances. Se entiende por salud pública abierta los datos, la información y el conocimiento dirigidos a mejorar la salud pública, que se comparten y desarrollan a través de redes colaborativas sin restricciones de acceso y uso y con protección continua de la privacidad, seguridad y confidencialidad de los datos sensibles o que requieran especial protección.

[ABSTRACT]. In the context of globalization, public health requires continuous cooperation among all actors and a flow of data and information that facilitates and leverages that cooperation. However, there are still barriers that limit or prevent access to and use of public health for the benefit of societies. In this context, the adoption of open public health is proposed and its implications and scope are explored. Open public health is understood as data, information and knowledge aimed at improving public health, which are shared and developed through collaborative networks without restrictions on access and use and with continuous protection of privacy, security and confidentiality of sensitive data or data requiring special protection.

[RESUMO]. No contexto da globalização, a saúde pública requer a cooperação contínua entre todos os atores e um fluxo de dados e informações que facilite e aproveite da melhor forma essa cooperação. No entanto, ainda existem muitas restrições que limitam ou impedem o acesso à saúde pública e a sua utilização em benefício das sociedades. Por isso, propomos aqui a adoção da saúde pública aberta, explorando as suas implicações e possibilidades. A saúde pública aberta é entendida como o uso de dados, informações e conhecimentos para melhorar a saúde pública, compartilhados e desenvolvidos através de redes colaborativas, sem restrições de acesso ou utilização e com proteção contínua da privacidade, segurança e confidencialidade de dados sensíveis ou que precisem de proteção especial.

Ambiente virtual para treino de competências de comunicação na área da saúde: o caso do atendimento em farmácia para automedicação

Este artigo descreve um protótipo de Realidade Virtual destinado ao treino de competências técnicas e de comunicação dos estudantes de Ciências Farmacêuticas. Numa situação simulada, um humano virtual desempenha o papel de um paciente/doente que requer o apoio de um profissional numa farmácia, comunicando com este através de mensagens de texto. O estudante comunica com este personagem virtual escolhendo opções na interface da aplicação. Esta interface contém para cada situação: i) um conjunto de questões a colocar ao paciente, destinadas a esclarecer a sua situação de saúde, ou em alternativa, ii) um conjunto de respostas ou recomendações para os problemas dos pacientes, em última análise o medicamento e a posologia recomendados. Estes conjuntos contêm opções corretas e incorretas, tendo o estudante o propósito de alcançar o melhor desempenho possível, escolhendo sempre as corretas. A simulação decorre num cenário pré-gravado de uma farmácia real, no qual o paciente virtual está inserido. Este personagem virtual é capaz de exibir expressões faciais e tem movimentos naturais do corpo obtidos recorrendo à técnica de captura de movimentos. Referência Bibliográfica: Cláudio, Ana Paula [et al.] - Ambiente virtual para treino de competências de comunicação na área da saúde : o caso do atendimento em farmácia para automedicação. "Revista de Ciências da Computação" [Em linha]. ISSN 1646-6330 (Print) 2182-1801 (Online). Vol. 9, nº 9 (2014), p. 45-62

Febre Amarela: guia para profissionais de saúde

Este documento foi elaborado para auxiliar os profissionais de saúde que atuam nas unidades básicas localizadas nas regiões com surtos de febre amarela nos seguintes aspectos: Identificação e manejo clínico de casos suspeitos e confirmados. Identificação, encaminhamento e manejo clínico de casos graves. Medidas de controle e prevenção do surto. Identificação e manejo de eventos adversos pós-vacinação (EAPV). Conceitos sobre a vigilância da febre amarela. Este guia também contém informações básicas para que os gestores do Sistema Único de Saúde (SUS) e de unidades de saúde se preparem para receber pacientes com suspeita de febre amarela ou com reações adversas após a vacinação. O conteúdo deste guia pode ser reproduzido em partes ou no todo, de acordo com a conveniência e a necessidade de cada serviço de saúde, desde que citada a fonte.

Alimentos orgánicos disminuyen la incidencia de cáncer / Organic foods reduce the incidence of cancer

En todo el mundo, el número de casos nuevos de cáncer se estimó en 2012 en más de 14 millones,1,2 y el cáncer sigue siendo una de las principales causas de mortalidad en Francia. Entre los factores de riesgo ambientales para el cáncer, existen preocupaciones sobre la exposición a diferentes clases de pesticidas, en particular a través de la exposición ocupacional.3 Una revisión reciente4 concluyó que el papel de los pesticidas para el riesgo de cáncer no podía ponerse en duda dado el creciente cuerpo de evidencia que vincula el desarrollo del cáncer a la exposición a plaguicidas. Si bien las respuestas a dosis de tales moléculas o los posibles efectos de coctel no se conocen bien, se ha sugerido un aumento de los efectos tóxicos, incluso a bajas concentraciones de mezclas de pesticidas.5

Worldwide, the number of new cases of cancer was estimated in 2012 at more than 14 million, 1,2 and cancer remains one of the leading causes of death in France. Among the environmental risk factors for cancer, there are concerns about exposure to different kinds of pesticides, particularly through occupational exposure.3 A recent review4 concluded that the role of pesticides in cancer risk could not be put in place. doubt given the growing body of evidence linking the development of cancer to exposure to pesticides. While responses to doses of such molecules or possible cocktail effects are not well known, an increase in toxic effects has been suggested, even at low concentrations of pesticide mixtures.5

Un llamado ético a la inclusión de mujeres embarazadas en investigación: Reflexiones del Foro Global de Bioética en Investigación

El Foro Global de Bioética en Investigación (GFBR por sus siglas en inglés) se reunió el 3 y 4 de noviembre en Buenos Aires, Argentina, con el objetivo de discutir la ética de la investigación con mujeres embarazadas. El GFBR es una plataforma mundial que congrega a actores clave con el objetivo de promover la investigación realizada de manera ética, fortalecer la ética de la investigación en salud, particularmente en países de ingresos bajos y medios, y promover colaboración entre países del norte y del sur.a Los participantes en el GFBR provenientes de Latinoamérica incluyeron a eticistas, investigadores, miembros de comités de ética y representantes de autoridades sanitarias provenientes de Argentina, Brasil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Panamá, Perú, Nicaragua y la República Dominicana. Una legítima preocupación por la protección de las mujeres embarazadas y sus embriones o fetos ha llevado a la mayoría de los países de la Región de las Américas a limitar la realización de estudios con mujeres embarazadas exclusivamente a aquellos estudios específicos sobre el embarazo, y a requerir la exclusión sistemática de las mujeres embarazadas o de las mujeres que quedan embarazadas en el curso del estudio. Ciertamente, a lo largo de la historia de la ética de la investigación, se ha creído erróneamente que proteger a una población es sinónimo de excluirla de los estudios. Se sabe ahora que proceder así implica exponer a riesgos mucho mayores a la población que se busca proteger. El embarazo implica cambios fisiológicos sustantivos e impacta profundamente la manera como el cuerpo metaboliza los medicamentos. Sin embargo, por evitar hacer investigación con mujeres embarazadas, no se ha producido la evidencia científica necesaria para tomar decisiones sobre tratamientos e intervenciones preventivas con dosis eficaces y seguras para ellas y sus embriones o fetos. A manera de ilustración, en el 2001 había en los Estados Unidos apenas más de una docena de medicamentos aprobados para uso en el embarazo (1) y en el 2011 la Food and Drug Administration (FDA) aprobó por primera vez en 15 años un medicamento para su uso en el embarazo (2). Como consecuencia de no haber producido la evidencia necesaria, se pone en riesgo la salud de las mujeres embarazadas cada vez que se les da atención médica. Las mujeres embarazadas se enferman y las mujeres enfermas se embarazan, y no se sabe si los medicamentos que se les da son eficaces o siquiera seguros para ellas y sus embriones o fetos...

Psicologia do Esporte no Brasil: revisão em Periódicos da Psicologia / Sports Psychology in Brazil: Review in Psychology Journals

O objetivo do presente estudo foi realizar uma revisão sistemática de literatura sobre a psicologia do esporte em periódicos da psicologia. Foram realizadas buscas eletrônicas nas bases de dados SciELO (na área das ciências humanas) e PePSIC. Como descritores, utilizaram-se os seguintes termos: psicologia do esporte, esporte e atleta. Não se estabeleceu período para a seleção dos artigos. Entre os 84 periódicos indexados na áreadas ciências humanas dentro da base de dados SciELO, fizeram parte da amostra 14 revistas. Na base de dados PePSIC foram encontradas 66 revistas e oito foram incluídas. No total, foram 66 artigos selecionados. Após os critérios de inclusão, 39 fizeram parte da análise. Os resultados evidenciam que, apesar do aumento da produção relacionada ao tema entre 2010 e 2012, ainda se produz pouco sobre o tema psicologia do esporte, concentrando-se em alguns periódicos. Conhecer a produção científica de psicologia do esporte em periódicos da psicologia possibilita traçar o perfil dos estudos publicados, identificando futuros direcionamentos para a área

The aim of this study was to systematically review the literature issues on sports psychology in journals of psychology. Electronic search in SciELO (Human Science area) and PePSIC databases was performed. As descriptors, the terms Sports Psychologist, sport, and athletes were used. For the selection it was not established period of time. Among the 84 index journals in Human Science in the SciELO database, 14 journals took part in the sample. In the PePSIC database 66 journals were found and 8 were included in the study. Altogether, 66 articles were selected. However after meeting the inclusion criteria only 39 were analyzed. The findings showed that despite the increase of production in the area between 2010 and 2012 very little is produced on the sports psychology. Understanding the scientific production of sports psychology in journals of psychology enables tracing the profile of the published studies, identifying future directions to the area.Keywords:Sports psychology; literature review; psychology

El objetivo de este estudio fue revisar sistemáticamente la literatura acerca de la psicología del deporte en revistas de psicología. Las búsquedas electrónicas se realizaron en las bases de datos SciELO (en el área de las Ciencias Humanas) y PePSIC. Como descriptores, se utilizaron los siguientes términos: psicología del deporte, deporte y atleta. No se ha establecido período para la selección de los artículos. Entre las 84 revistas indexadas en el área de las ciencias humanas dentro de la base de datos SciELO, formaron parte de la muestra 14 revistas. En la base de datos PePSIC se encontraron 66 revistas y se incluyeron ocho. En total fueron 66 trabajos seleccionados. Después de los criterios de inclusión, 39 formaron parte del análisis. Los resultados muestran que a pesar del aumento de la producción relacionada con el tema entre 2010 y 2012 aún se produce poco sobre el tema de la psicología del deporte, centrándose en algunas revistas. Comprender la producción científica de la psicología del deporte en revistas de psicología permite trazar el perfil de los estudios publicados, identificando futuras orientaciones para el tema

Paving pathways: Brazil’s implementation of a national human papillomavirus immunization campaign / Allanando el camino: implementación de una campaña nacional de vacunación contra el virus del papiloma humano en Brasil

In 2014, Brazil introduced an HPV immunization program for girls 9–13 years of age as part of the Unified Health System’s (SUS) National Immunization Program. The first doses were administered in March 2014; the second ones, in September 2014. In less than 3 months more than 3 million girls received the first dose of quadrivalent HPV vaccine, surpassing the target rate of 80%. This paper examines three elements that may influence the program’s long-term success in Brazil: sustaining effective outreach, managing a large tech¬nology-transfer collaboration, and developing an electronic immunization registry, with a focus on the State of São Paulo. If these three factors are managed, the Government of Brazil is primed to serve as a model of success for other countries interested in implementing a national HPV vaccination program to decrease HPV-related morbidity and mortality.

En el 2014, se introdujo en Brasil un programa de vacunación contra los VPH dirigido a niñas de 9 a 13 años de edad como parte del Programa Nacional de Vacunación del Sistema Unificado de Salud (SUS). Las primeras dosis se administraron en marzo del 2014; las segundas, en septiembre del 2014. En menos de tres meses, más de tres millones de niñas recibieron la primera dosis de vacuna tetravalente contra los VPH, superando la tasa prevista de 80%. En este artículo se analizan tres elementos que pueden influir en el éxito a largo plazo del programa en Brasil: el mantenimiento de actividades de extensión eficaces, la administración de una amplia colaboración en materia de transferencia de tecnología, y la creación de un registro electrónico de vacunaciones, con hincapié en el Estado de São Paulo. Si se gestionan estos tres factores, el Gobierno de Brasil está dispuesto a servir como modelo exitoso a otros países interesados en introducir un programa nacional de vacunación contra los VPH con objeto de disminuir la morbilidad y la mortalidad relacionadas con los VPH.

Elaboração e validação semântica de um instrumento de avaliação da transferência do tratamento diretamente observado como política de controle da tuberculose / Design and semantic validation of a new instrument to assess policy transfer of directly observed treatment for tuberculosis

Objetivo. Elaborar e validar semanticamente um instrumento de avaliação da transferência do tratamento diretamente observado (TDO) como política de controle da tuberculose Segundo a experiência de profissionais de saúde de nível médio e superior. Método. Trata-se de uma investigação metodológica desenvolvida em duas etapas: revisão da literatura para elaboração do instrumento primário e validação semântica do instrument primário mediante aplicação de questionários adaptados do método DISABKIDS®. As informações obtidas, a depender de suas características, foram analisadas quantitativa (estatística descritiva) ou qualitativamente (análise de conteúdo – modalidade temática). Resultados. Participaram do estudo 24 profissionais de nível médio e superior que executam ações de controle da tuberculose. O instrumento foi considerado importante para a prática professional dos sujeitos do estudo. As respostas geraram modificações na estrutura e no conteúdo do instrumento. O processo resultou em um instrumento elaborado e validado semanticamente. Conclusões. A validação semântica é importante para garantir a aplicabilidade dos instrumentos de avaliação, como mostrou a contribuição dos participantes. O instrumento cuja validação semântica foi descrita no presente estudo será posteriormente avaliado quanto a características psicométricas por meio de técnicas estatísticas e quanto a sua utilidade para mensurar a transferência do TDO como política de controle da tuberculose aos profissionais de saúde.

Objective. To design and semantically validate an instrument to evaluate the transfer of directly observed therapy (DOT) as a policy for tuberculosis control taking into consideration the experience of mid- and higher level health care workers. Methods. This methodological investigation was developed in two stages: literature review to design the first draft of the instrument; and semantic validation of the first draft using questionnaires adapted from the DISABKIDS® project. The information obtained was analyzed using quantitative (descriptive statistics) or qualitative (content theme analysis) methods. Results. Twenty-four mid- and higher level health care workers engaged in tuberculosis control participated in the study. The instrument was considered important for the work of study participants. The answers provided by participants led to changes in both the structure and content of the instrument. The process resulted in a final, semantically validated questionnaire. Conclusions. Semantic validation is important to ensure the applicability of assessment instruments, as shown by the contributions provided by participants. The instrument whose semantic validation was described in this study will now be assessed in terms of psychometric characteristics and usefulness to measure the transfer of DOT to health professionals as a tuberculosis control policy.

A Spanish-language patient safety questionnaire to measure medical and nursing students’ attitudes and knowledge / Un cuestionario en español sobre seguridad del paciente para medir las actitudes y los conocimientos de los estudiantes de medicina y enfermería

Objetivo. Diseñar y validar un cuestionario de evaluación de las actitudes y los conocimientos en materia de seguridad del paciente con una muestra de estudiantes de medicina y enfermería que reciben formación médica en España y en cuatro países de América Latina. Métodos. En este estudio transversal se llevó a cabo una revisión bibliográfica y se encuestó a un total de 786 estudiantes de medicina y enfermería de ocho universidades de cinco países (Chile, Colombia, El Salvador, España y Guatemala) con objeto de elaborar y corregir un cuestionario en español sobre conocimientos y actitudes en materia de seguridad del paciente. El ámbito del cuestionario se basó en cinco dimensiones (factores) presentadas en estudios relacionados con la cultura de la seguridad del paciente encontrados en PubMed y Scopus. Con base en los cinco factores, se elaboraron 25 ítems reactivos. Se calcularon los índices de fiabilidad compuesta y alfa de Cronbach para cada factor, y se realizó un análisis factorial confirmatorio para evaluar la validez. Tras una prueba piloto se corrigió el cuestionario mediante modelos confirmatorios, el cálculo de la máxima probabilidad y la matriz de variancia-covariancia (como insumo). Se utilizaron modelos de regresión lineal múltiple para confirmar la validez externa, considerando las variables relacionadas con la cultura de seguridad del paciente como variables dependientes y los cinco factores como variables independientes. Resultados. El instrumento final fue una encuesta autoadministrada mediante escala de Likert estructurada en cinco puntos (“Cuestionario de Seguridad del Paciente para Estudiantes Latinos”), que consta de 21 ítems agrupados en cinco factores. Los índices de fiabilidad compuesta (prueba estadística de alfa de Cronbach) calculados para los cinco factores fueron aproximadamente de 0,7 o superiores. Los resultados de los análisis de regresión lineal múltiple indicaron un buen ajuste del modelo (índice de bondad de ajuste: 0,9). Las correlaciones ítem-total fueron superiores a 0,3 en todos los casos. La validez convergente y discriminatoria fue adecuada. Conclusiones. El cuestionario diseñado y validado en este estudio evalúa las actitudes y los conocimientos de los estudiantes de enfermería y medicina en materia de seguridad del paciente. Este instrumento podría utilizarse para evaluar indirectamente si los estudiantes de disciplinas de la salud están adquiriendo, y por lo tanto, es probable que pongan en práctica, las habilidades profesionales consideradas actualmente como más apropiadas para la seguridad del paciente.

Objective. To design and validate a questionnaire for assessing attitudes and knowledge about patient safety using a sample of medical and nursing students undergoing clinical training in Spain and four countries in Latin America. Methods. In this cross-sectional study, a literature review was carried out and total of 786 medical and nursing students were surveyed at eight universities from five countries (Chile, Colombia, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Spain) to develop and refine a Spanish-language questionnaire on knowledge and attitudes about patient safety. The scope of the questionnaire was based on five dimensions (factors) presented in studies related to patient safety culture found in PubMed and Scopus. Based on the five factors, 25 reactive items were developed. Composite reliability indexes and Cronbach’s alpha statistics were estimated for each factor, and confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to assess validity. After a pilot test, the questionnaire was refined using confirmatory models, maximum-likelihood estimation, and the variance–covariance matrix (as input). Multiple linear regression models were used to confirm external validity, considering variables related to patient safety culture as dependent variables and the five factors as independent variables. Results. The final instrument was a structured five-point Likert self-administered survey (the “Latino Student Patient Safety Questionnaire”) consisting of 21 items grouped into five factors. Compound reliability indexes (Cronbach’s alpha statistic) calculated for the ive factors were about 0.7 or higher. The results of the multiple linear regression analyses indicated good model fit (goodness-of-fit index: 0.9). Item–total correlations were higher than 0.3 in all cases. The convergent-discriminant validity was adequate. Conclusions. The questionnaire designed and validated in this study assesses nursing and medical students’ attitudes and knowledge about patient safety. This instrument could be used to indirectly evaluate whether or not students in health disciplines are acquiring and thus likely to put into practice the professional skills currently considered most appropriate for patient safety.

El monitoreo orientado a la equidad en el contexto de la cobertura universal de salud

El monitoreo de las desigualdades en la salud es fundamental para el logro progresivo y equitativo de la cobertura universal de salud. Para que tenga éxito, el monitoreo global de las desigualdades debe ser lo suficientemente intuitivo a fin de que pueda adoptarse ampliamente y debe mantener al mismo tiempo su credibilidad técnica. En este artículo se analizan algunas consideraciones metodológicas para el monitoreo de la cobertura universal de salud orientado a la equidad y se proponen recomendaciones con respecto al monitoreo y el establecimiento de metas. La desigualdad es multidimensional, de modo que el grado de desigualdad puede variar considerablemente entre distintas dimensiones, como la posición económica, la educación, el sexo y la residencia urbana o rural. Por ello, el monitoreo global debe incluir dimensiones complementarias de la desigualdad (como la posición económica y la residencia urbana o rural) y el sexo. Para una dimensión dada de la desigualdad, deben establecerse subgrupos para el monitoreo considerando la aplicabilidad de los criterios entre los países y la heterogeneidad de los subgrupos. En el caso de la desigualdad asociada a la posición económica, recomendamos formar subgrupos utilizando quintiles y para la desigualdad por residencia urbana o rural, recomendamos una categorización binaria. La desigualdad abarca las poblaciones, por lo que los enfoques apropiados para el monitoreo deben basarse en comparaciones entre dos subgrupos (enfoque de brecha) o entre multiples subgrupos (enfoque de gradiente o espectro completo). Al medirse la desigualdad, las mediciones absolutas y relativas deben comunicarse al mismo tiempo, junto con los datos desagregados; la desigualdad debe informarse junto con el promedio nacional. Recomendamos establecer metas que se basen en reducciones proporcionales de la desigualdad absoluta en los grupos poblacionales. Crear la capacidad de monitorear las desigualdades en la salud es oportuno, pertinente e importante. El desarrollo de sistemas de información de salud de alta calidad, incluidas la recolección, el análisis y la interpretación de los datos y las prácticas de presentación de informes vinculadas a los ciclos de revisión y evaluación en los sistemas de salud, permitirá realizar un monitoreo eficaz de las desigualdades en la salud a escala mundial y nacional. Estas medidas apoyarán el logro progresivo de la cobertura universal de salud orientado a la equidad.

Monitoring inequalities in health is fundamental to the equitable and progressive realization of universal health coverage (UHC). A successful approach to global inequality monitoring must be intuitive enough for widespread adoption, yet maintain technical credibility. This article discusses methodological considerations for equity oriented monitoring of UHC, and proposes recommendations for monitoring and target setting. Inequality is multidimensional, such that the extent of inequality may vary considerably across different dimensions such as economic status, education, sex, and urban/rural residence. Hence, global monitoring should include complementary dimensions of inequality (such as economic status and urban/rural residence) as well as sex. For a given dimension of inequality, subgroups for monitoring must be formulated taking into consideration applicability of the criteria across countries and subgroup heterogeneity. For economic-related inequality, we recommend forming subgroups as quintiles, and for urban/rural inequality we recommend a binary categorization. Inequality spans populations, thus appropriate approaches to monitoring should be based on comparisons between two subgroups (gap approach) or across multiple subgroups (whole spectrum approach). When measuring inequality absolute and relative measures should be reported together, along with disaggregated data; inequality should be reported alongside the national average. We recommend targets based on proportional reductions in absolute inequality across populations. Building capacity for health inequality monitoring is timely, relevant, and important. The development of high-quality health information systems, including data collection, analysis, interpretation, and reporting practices that are linked to review and evaluation cycles across health systems, will enable effective global and national health inequality monitoring. These actions will support equity-oriented progressive realization of UHC.