Supernatural Attributions: Seeing God, the Devil, Demons, Spirits, Fate, and Karma as Causes of Events.

For many people worldwide, supernatural beliefs and attributions-those focused on God, the devil, demons, spirits, an afterlife, karma, or fate-are part of everyday life. Although not widely studied in clinical psychology, these beliefs and attributions are a key part of human diversity. This article provides a broad overview of research on supernatural beliefs and attributions with special attention to their psychological relevance: They can serve as coping resources, sources of distress, psychopathology signals, moral guides, and decision-making tools. Although supernatural attributions sometimes involve dramatic experiences seen to violate natural laws, people more commonly think of supernatural entities working indirectly through natural events. A whole host of factors can lead people to make supernatural attributions, including contextual factors, specific beliefs, psychopathology, cognitive styles and personality, and social and cultural influences. Our aim is to provide clinical psychologists with an entry point into this rich, fascinating, and often overlooked literature.

Intolerance of uncertainty prospectively predicts the transdiagnostic severity of emotional psychopathology: Evidence from a Veteran sample.

Intolerance of uncertainty (IU) has been conceptualized as a transdiagnostic vulnerability for emotional psychopathology, but few studies have tested whether it prospectively predicts emotional psychopathology, and none have utilized transdiagnostic and clinician-rated outcomes. To fill this gap, the present study tested whether IU prospectively predicted the clinician-rated severity of transdiagnostic emotional psychopathology six months later in a treatment-seeking Veteran sample. Participants completed the Intolerance of Uncertainty 12-item scale (IUS-12) and the Structured Clinical Interview for the DSM-5 (SCID-5) at Time 1 and again six-months later (Time 2); assessed emotional disorders included both anxiety-related disorders (i.e., post-traumatic stress disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder, specific phobia) and depressive conditions (i.e., major depressive disorder and persistent depressive disorder). Linear regression analyses revealed a bidirectional prospective relation between IU and emotional psychopathology, wherein higher Time 1 IUS-12 predicted greater Time 2 emotional disorder severity and greater Time 1 emotional disorder severity predicted higher Time 2 IUS-12. Follow-up analyses revealed that IU prospectively predicted the maintenance (but not the development) of anxiety-related issues, whereas prediction of Time 2 depression was nullified when controlling for Time 1 anxiety pathology. These findings implicate IU as a transdiagnostic vulnerability for emotional psychopathology and suggest the construct can be particularly useful as a treatment target and prognostic indicator for anxiety-related conditions.

What shall we call God? An exploration of metaphors coded from descriptions of God from a large U.S. undergraduate sample.

People use numerous metaphors to describe God. God is seen as a bearded man, light, and love. Based on metaphor theories, the metaphors people use to refer to God reflect how people think about God and could, in turn, reflect their worldview. However, little work has explored the common metaphors for God. This was the purpose of the current investigation. Four trained raters coded open-ended responses from predominantly Christian U.S. undergraduates (N = 2,923) describing God for the presence or absence of numerous metaphoric categories. We then assessed the frequency of each of the metaphor categories. We identified 16 metaphor categories that were present in more than 1% of the responses. The top categories were "GOD IS POWER," "GOD IS HUMAN," and "GOD IS MALE." These findings were similar across religious affiliations. We attempted to support our coding analysis using top-down and bottom-up automated language analysis. Results from these analyses provided added confidence to our conclusions. We discuss the implications of our findings and the potential for future studies investigating important psychological and behavioral outcomes of using different metaphors for God.

The impact of social support and morally injurious events on PTSD symptoms in Veterans.

Potentially morally injurious events (PMIEs), including committing transgressions (Transgressions-Self) and perceiving betrayals, have been positively associated with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). A proposed mechanism for the association between PMIEs and PTSD symptoms is social disconnection. However, research on PMIEs and social disconnection is limited. Secondary data analysis from a larger study examined the moderating role of different sources of perceived social support (Family, Friends, and Significant Other) on the relation between PMIEs (Transgressions-Self and Betrayal) and PTSD. The interaction of Transgressions-Self and perceived social support subscales did not predict PTSD symptoms. However, the interaction of Betrayals and perceived social support (Significant Other and Family) predicted PTSD symptoms. Results suggest that perceived social support provides a protective effect for low to mean levels of perceived betrayals; however, for Veterans reporting high levels of betrayal, perceived social support did not attenuate PTSD symptom severity. Additional research on perceived betrayals and the association with PTSD is needed, especially for Veterans who experience high levels of perceived betrayals.

Correction: Generational and Time Period Differences in American Adolescents' Religious Orientation, 1966-2014.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0121454.].

Emerging adult reactions to labeling regarding age-group differences in narcissism and entitlement.

Both academic and popular literatures have repeatedly contended that emerging adults are the most narcissistic and entitled age-group in modern times. Although this contention is fiercely debated, the message that emerging adults are narcissistic and entitled has saturated popular culture. Despite this saturation, relatively little empirical work has examined how emerging adults might react to such labels. Across three studies in five samples in the U.S., the present work sought to address this deficit in research. Results from cross-sectional samples of university students at two universities, as well as an online convenience sample of web-using adults (Study 1), indicated that emerging adults believe their age-group and the one following them (e.g., adolescents) to be the most narcissistic and entitled age-groups, that they have generally negative opinions of narcissism and entitlement, and that they respond negatively to being labeled as narcissistic and entitled. Additionally, results from adult web-users revealed that, while all age groups tend to view adolescents and emerging adults as more narcissistic and entitled than older age-groups, these opinions are more exaggerated among members of older age-groups. Finally, across two experimental studies (Studies 2 & 3), results indicated that emerging adults react negatively to labeling of their age-group as narcissistic and entitled, but no more negatively than they do to potentially related undesirable labels (e.g., oversensitive). Collectively, these results indicate that emerging adults are aware of and somewhat distressed by messaging that casts their age-group as the most narcissistic and entitled age-group ever.

Religious and spiritual struggles, religiousness, and alcohol problems among undergraduates.

Theoretically, religion/spirituality may protect against alcohol problems or facilitate recovery. However, challenges can arise in religious/spiritual life that may contribute to or complicate alcohol problems. Emerging adults often experience difficult transitions from family environments to independent membership in academic communities straddling the legal drinking age boundary. Among underage undergraduates, we hypothesized that religious/spiritual struggles predict more alcohol problems independently of distress and religiousness, and religiousness independently predicts fewer alcohol problems. Our survey of two U.S. universities (total N = 2525) supported these hypotheses. Structural equation models revealed positive correlations between alcohol problems and all six religious/spiritual struggles (divine, demonic, interpersonal, moral, ultimate meaning, doubt), but only moral struggle predicted alcohol problems moderately and independently of religiousness, distress, gender, and non/white ethnicity. Evidence also emerged for negative correlations between religious/spiritual struggles and drinking as it varies independently of alcohol problems. We recommend that alcoholism counselors address clients' religious/spiritual struggles.

Predicting pornography use over time: Does self-reported "addiction" matter?

In recent years, several works have reported on perceived addiction to internet pornography, or the potential for some individuals to label their own use of pornography as compulsive or out of control. Such works have consistently found that perceived addiction is related to concerning outcomes such as psychological distress, relational distress, and other addictive behaviors. However, very little work has specifically examined whether or not perceived addiction is actually related to increased use of pornography, cross-sectionally or over time. The present work sought to address this deficit in the literature. Using two longitudinal samples (Sample 1, Baseline N = 3988; Sample 2, Baseline N = 1047), a variety of factors (e.g., male gender, lower religiousness, and lower self-control) were found to predict any use of pornography. Among those that acknowledged use (Sample 1, Baseline N = 1352; Sample 2, Baseline N = 793), perceived addiction to pornography consistently predicted greater average daily use of pornography. At subsequent longitudinal follow-ups (Sample 1, Baseline N = 265; Sample 2, One Month Later, N = 410, One Year Later, N = 360), only male gender and baseline average pornography use consistently predicted future use. These findings suggest that perceived addiction to pornography is associated with concurrent use of pornography, but does not appear to predict use over time, suggesting that perceived addiction may not always be an accurate indicator of behavior or addiction.

Moral disapproval and perceived addiction to internet pornography: a longitudinal examination.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Internet pornography use is an increasingly common, yet controversial, behavior. Whereas mental health communities are divided about potentially problematic use patterns, many lay people identify as feeling dysregulated or compulsive in their use. Prior work has labeled this tendency perceived addiction to internet pornography (PA). This study's aims were to (1) assess the association between PA at baseline and other factors, including actual levels of average daily pornography use and personality factors and (2) assess the associations between baseline variables and PA 1 year later. DESIGN: Two large-scale community samples were assessed using online survey methods, with subsets of each sample being recruited for follow-up surveys 1 year later. SETTING: United States. PARTICIPANTS: Participants were adults who had used pornography within the past 6 months recruited in two samples. Sample 1 (n = 1507) involved undergraduate students from three US universities and sample 2 (n = 782) involved web-using adults. Subsets of each sample (sample 1, n = 146; sample 2, n = 211) were surveyed again 1 year later. MEASUREMENTS: At baseline, we assessed average daily pornography use, PA and relevant predictors (e.g. trait neuroticism, trait self-control, trait entitlement, religiousness, moral disapproval of pornography use). One year later, we assessed PA. FINDINGS: Cross-sectionally, PA was correlated strongly with moral disapproval of pornography use [sample 1, Pearson's correlation: r = 0.68 (0.65, 0.70); sample 2, r = 0.58 (0.53, 0.63)]. Baseline moral disapproval [sample 1, r = 0.46 (0.33, 0.56); sample 2, r = 0.61 (0.51, 0.69)] and perceived addiction demonstrated relationships with perceived addiction 1 year later. We found inconclusive evidence of a substantial or significant association between pornography use and perceived addiction over time [sample 1, r = 0.13 (-0.02, 0.28); sample 2, r = 0.11 (-0.04, 0.25)]. CONCLUSIONS: Perceived addiction to internet pornography appears to be related strongly to moral scruples around pornography use, both concurrently and over time, rather than with the amount of daily pornography use itself.

Morally injurious events and psychological distress among veterans: Examining the mediating role of religious and spiritual struggles.

OBJECTIVE: Potentially morally injurious events (PMIEs)-violations (perpetrated or witnessed) of one's deeply held beliefs or values-have been associated with several forms of psychological distress. The values violated by PMIEs are often influenced by one's religion/spirituality (r/s). Struggles with one's r/s beliefs and/or practices may also contribute to elevated psychological distress. To further develop a framework for understanding and treating the sequelae of PMIE exposure, we examined the role of r/s struggles in the relation between PMIE exposure and psychological distress. METHOD: A diverse sample of 155 veterans at a large Veterans Affairs medical center completed questionnaires assessing PMIE exposure, r/s struggles, and psychological distress. RESULTS: Findings revealed greater PMIE exposure predicted elevated r/s struggles as well as elevated symptoms of anxiety and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Likewise, greater r/s struggles predicted elevated anxiety, PTSD, and depression symptoms. Regression analyses revealed r/s struggles fully mediated the relation between PMIE exposure and anxiety as well as PTSD, and a significant indirect effect of PMIE exposure on depression symptoms through r/s struggles was observed. Follow-up analyses revealed that no specific domain of r/s struggles accounted for the relation between PMIE exposure and psychological distress; rather, the overarching construct of r/s struggles accounted for this relation. CONCLUSION: These findings advance the evolving theoretical framework of moral injury, elucidating the salience of r/s struggles in the development of distress. Implications for moral injury intervention call for attention to potential dissonance between actions (witnessed or perpetrated) and r/s underpinnings of the individual's moral framework. (PsycINFO Database Record

Social Desirability Bias in Pornography-Related Self-Reports: The Role of Religion.

In a large online survey of undergraduates, we examined the degree to which social desirability concerns might bias pornography-related self-reports and whether these biases are stronger among highly religious participants than among less-religious ones. Recent state-level analyses have put forward a controversial suggestion that religious individuals tend to search for pornography more than their less-religious peers, despite self-reports to the contrary. Such results could be explained by a social-desirability bias against reporting the consumption of pornography, one that applies specifically to religious individuals. Though our findings are limited to undergraduates in the U.S. Midwest, we found some evidence that the desire to positively self-present (as measured by the Marlowe-Crowne social desirability scale) may bias reports of pornography consumption and perceptions of pornography's effects (e.g., perceptions of addictiveness). However, contrary to popular sentiment-and our own hypotheses-we found no evidence for and much evidence against the suggestion that religious individuals have a more pronounced social desirability bias against the reporting of pornography consumption than the irreligious. Interaction terms assessing that possibility were either nonsignificant or significant in the reverse direction.

Internet Pornography Use, Perceived Addiction, and Religious/Spiritual Struggles.

Prior work has demonstrated that religious beliefs and moral attitudes are often related to sexual functioning. The present work sought to examine another possibility: Do sexual attitudes and behaviors have a relationship with religious and spiritual functioning? More specifically, do pornography use and perceived addiction to Internet pornography predict the experience of religious and spiritual struggle? It was expected that feelings of perceived addiction to Internet pornography would indeed predict such struggles, both cross-sectionally and over time, but that actual pornography use would not. To test these ideas, two studies were conducted using a sample of undergraduate students (N = 1519) and a sample of adult Internet users in the U.S. (N = 713). Cross-sectional analyses in both samples found that elements of perceived addiction were related to the experience of religious and spiritual struggle. Additionally, longitudinal analyses over a 1-year time span with a subset of undergraduates (N = 156) and a subset of adult web users (N = 366) revealed that perceived addiction to Internet pornography predicted unique variance in struggle over time, even when baseline levels of struggle and other related variables were held constant. Collectively, these findings identify perceived addiction to Internet pornography as a reliable predictor of religious and spiritual struggle.

Trait entitlement: A cognitive-personality source of vulnerability to psychological distress.

Psychological entitlement is a personality trait characterized by pervasive feelings of deservingness, specialness, and exaggerated expectations. The present review expands upon this understanding by conceptualizing entitlement as a cognitive-personality vulnerability to psychological distress. A review of research is conducted, and a novel, multipart model is described by which entitlement may be seen as such a vulnerability. First, exaggerated expectations, notions of the self as special, and inflated deservingness associated with trait entitlement present the individual with a continual vulnerability to unmet expectations. Second, entitled individuals are likely to interpret these unmet expectations in ways that foster disappointment, ego threat, and a sense of perceived injustice, all of which may lead to psychological distress indicators such as dissatisfaction across multiple life domains, anger, and generally volatile emotional responses. Furthermore, in the wake of disappointment, ego threat, or perceived injustice, entitled individuals are likely to attempt to bolster their entitled self-concept, leading to a reinforcement of entitled beliefs, thereby initiating the cycle again. At each stage of this process, entitlement presents the individual with the possibility of experiencing distress, predisposes further risk factors for distress (e.g., the subsequent steps in the model), and increases the risk of interpersonal conflict, again leading to distress. A review of relevant empirical data suggests preliminary support for this conceptual model of entitlement. (PsycINFO Database Record

Spiritual Struggle Among Patients Seeking Treatment for Chronic Headaches: Anger and Protest Behaviors Toward God.

This study examined anger and protest behaviors toward God among 80 US adults seeking treatment for chronic headaches (66 women, 14 men; 71 completed treatment). Measures were administered before and after an intensive 3-week outpatient treatment program. At both times, anger and protest toward God correlated with lower pain acceptance, more emotional distress, and greater perceived disability. However, when considered simultaneously, anger predicted sustained distress, whereas protest behaviors (e.g., complaining, questioning, arguing) predicted both reduced distress and an increased sense of meaning. These findings suggest the utility of distinguishing between anger toward God and behaviors suggesting assertiveness toward God.

Perceived addiction to Internet pornography and psychological distress: Examining relationships concurrently and over time.

In the United States, Internet pornography use is a common behavior that has risen in popularity in recent years. The present study sought to examine potential relationships between pornography use and well-being, with a particular focus on individual perceptions of pornography use and feelings of addiction. Using a large cross-sectional sample of adults (N = 713), perceived addiction to Internet pornography predicted psychological distress above and beyond pornography use itself and other relevant variables (e.g., socially desirable responding, neuroticism). This model was replicated using a large cross-sectional sample of undergraduates (N = 1,215). Furthermore, a 1-year, longitudinal follow-up with a subset of this sample (N = 106) revealed a relationship between perceived addiction to Internet pornography and psychological distress over time, even when controlling for baseline psychological distress and pornography use. Collectively, these findings suggest that perceived addiction to Internet pornography, but not pornography use itself, is uniquely related to the experience of psychological distress.

Generational and time period differences in American adolescents' religious orientation, 1966-2014.

In four large, nationally representative surveys (N = 11.2 million), American adolescents and emerging adults in the 2010s (Millennials) were significantly less religious than previous generations (Boomers, Generation X) at the same age. The data are from the Monitoring the Future studies of 12th graders (1976-2013), 8th and 10th graders (1991-2013), and the American Freshman survey of entering college students (1966-2014). Although the majority of adolescents and emerging adults are still religiously involved, twice as many 12th graders and college students, and 20%-40% more 8th and 10th graders, never attend religious services. Twice as many 12th graders and entering college students in the 2010s (vs. the 1960s-70s) give their religious affiliation as "none," as do 40%-50% more 8th and 10th graders. Recent birth cohorts report less approval of religious organizations, are less likely to say that religion is important in their lives, report being less spiritual, and spend less time praying or meditating. Thus, declines in religious orientation reach beyond affiliation to religious participation and religiosity, suggesting a movement toward secularism among a growing minority. The declines are larger among girls, Whites, lower-SES individuals, and in the Northeastern U.S., very small among Blacks, and non-existent among political conservatives. Religious affiliation is lower in years with more income inequality, higher median family income, higher materialism, more positive self-views, and lower social support. Overall, these results suggest that the lower religious orientation of Millennials is due to time period or generation, and not to age.

Internet pornography use: perceived addiction, psychological distress, and the validation of a brief measure.

The authors aimed to validate a brief measure of perceived addiction to Internet pornography refined from the 32-item Cyber Pornography Use Inventory, report its psychometric properties, and examine how the notion of perceived addiction to Internet pornography might be related to other domains of psychological functioning. To accomplish this, 3 studies were conducted using a sample of undergraduate psychology students, a web-based adult sample, and a sample of college students seeking counseling at a university's counseling center. The authors developed and refined a short 9-item measure of perceived addiction to Internet pornography, confirmed its structure in multiple samples, examined its relatedness to hypersexuality more broadly, and demonstrated that the notion of perceived addiction to Internet pornography is very robustly related to various measures of psychological distress. Furthermore, the relation between psychological distress and the new measure persisted, even when other potential contributors (e.g., neuroticism, self-control, amount of time spent viewing pornography) were controlled for statistically, indicating the clinical relevance of assessing perceived addiction to Internet pornography.

Transgression as addiction: religiosity and moral disapproval as predictors of perceived addiction to pornography.

Perceived addiction to Internet pornography is increasingly a focus of empirical attention. The present study examined the role that religious belief and moral disapproval of pornography use play in the experience of perceived addiction to Internet pornography. Results from two studies in undergraduate samples (Study 1, N = 331; Study 2, N = 97) indicated that there was a robust positive relationship between religiosity and perceived addiction to pornography and that this relationship was mediated by moral disapproval of pornography use. These results persisted even when actual use of pornography was controlled. Furthermore, although religiosity was negatively predictive of acknowledging any pornography use, among pornography users, religiosity was unrelated to actual levels of use. A structural equation model from a web-based sample of adults (Study 3, N = 208) revealed similar results. Specifically, religiosity was robustly predictive of perceived addiction, even when relevant covariates (e.g., trait self-control, socially desirable responding, neuroticism, use of pornography) were held constant. In sum, the present study indicated that religiosity and moral disapproval of pornography use were robust predictors of perceived addiction to Internet pornography while being unrelated to actual levels of use among pornography consumers.

The spiritual struggle of anger toward God: a study with family members of hospice patients.

INTRODUCTION: Anger toward God is a common form of spiritual struggle, one that people often experience when they see God as responsible for severe harm or suffering. The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence, correlates, and preferred coping strategies associated with anger toward God among family members of hospice patients. METHODS: Teams from a large hospice in the midwestern United States distributed surveys, one per household, to family members of home-care patients. The survey assessed feelings toward God (anger/disappointment and positive feelings), depressive symptoms, religiosity, and perceived meaning. Participants also rated their interest in various strategies for coping with conflicts with God. RESULTS: Surveys (n=134) indicated that 43% of participants reported anger/disappointment toward God, albeit usually at low levels of intensity. Anger toward God was associated with more depressive symptoms, lower religiosity, more difficulty finding meaning, and belief that the patient was experiencing greater pain. Prayer was the most highly endorsed strategy for managing conflicts with God. Other commonly endorsed strategies included reading sacred texts; handling the feelings on one's own; and conversations with friends, family, clergy, or hospice staff. Self-help resources and therapy were less popular options. CONCLUSION: Anger toward God is an important spiritual issue among family members of hospice patients, one that is commonly experienced and linked with depressive symptoms. It is valuable for hospice staff to be informed about the issue of anger toward God, especially because many family members reported interest in talking with hospice team members about such conflicts.

Forgiveness, depressive symptoms, and communication at the end of life: a study with family members of hospice patients.

INTRODUCTION: Forgiveness has begun to receive empirical attention in end-of-life contexts, but primarily among patients. This study examined forgiveness issues and communication priorities among family members of hospice patients. METHODS: Surveys were distributed to family members of home-care patients in a large not-for-profit hospice in the Great Lakes region of the United States. Family members wrote what they would like to say to patients before they died. They also rated the importance of several expressions (love, gratitude, giving and seeking forgiveness, saying farewell) and the extent to which they had already expressed these messages. Participants rated their depressive symptoms and the quantity of unresolved offenses committed by themselves and the patient. RESULTS: Of 147 surveys returned by participants, 142 were usable. In comparison with forgiveness-related communications, expressions of love, gratitude, and farewell were more consistently rated important; yet many participants rated forgiveness (giving and seeking) as extremely important. If forgiveness was rated important but had not been fully expressed, participants reported more depressive symptoms (p<0.05). Also, unresolved offenses (by participants or patients) correlated positively with depressive symptoms (p<0.05). CONCLUSION: Although not as commonly endorsed as expressions of love and gratitude, forgiveness-related communications are seen as extremely important by many family members of hospice patients. If family members see forgiveness (granting or seeking) as important but have not completed the process, these unresolved issues are associated with depressive symptoms. This study suggests that unresolved offenses and forgiveness issues warrant assessment and clinical attention within families receiving hospice care.