Tuberculosis surveillance and its discontents: the ethical paradox.

In June 2017, the World Health Organization issued the Guidelines on Ethical Issues in Public Health Surveillance. Using the frame of public health ethics, the guidance declared that countries have an affirmative duty to undertake surveillance and that the global community had an obligation to support those countries whose resources limited their capacity. The centrality of TB surveillance has long been recognized as a matter of public health practice and ethics. Nevertheless, contemporary global realities make clear that TB surveillance falls far short of the goal of uniform notification. It is this reality that necessitated the paradoxical turn to research studies that require informed consent and human subjects' ethical review, the very burdens that mandated notification were designed to overcome.

The polio narratives: dialogues with FDR.

As a group of accounts that span the decades from the mid-1940s to the present, the published polio narratives enable us to align their shifting perceptions of disability with social, cultural, and technological change. This paper identifies two distinct groups of narratives. Authors of the first group, writing between the mid-1930s and mid-1950s--a period of relative prosperity, conformity, and homogeneity--were uncomfortable with radical movements, diversity, and conflict; their narratives typically told of either full or substantial recovery. Beginning in the mid-1950s--the period of both McCarthy and the Civil Rights movement--a second wave of narratives begins to tell stories of partial to serious disability; typically, they reflect on a lifetime of coping with chronic disability. Both sets of narratives, however, represent a dialogue with Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Roosevelt himself, journalists, and the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis all helped to create and promote a core polio narrative featuring FDR's triumph over disease and disability that would become a national myth. Yet while the early narratives reinforced the core elements of the Roosevelt myth, the later ones began to challenge them.

Public health. Surveillance and privacy.

Surveillance is the radar of public health. It has provided the foundation for public health planning, intervention, and prevention. Important ethical issues regarding privacy--the extent to which name-based reporting violates the trust and assumptions made about how personal medical information will be treated--are raised by public health surveillance. This policy forum looks at the contexts of differing responses from the public health communities and general public to surveillance efforts.

Public health nihilism vs pragmatism: history, politics, and the control of tuberculosis.

Tuberculosis (TB) began to decline in the Western world in the mid- to late 1800s. In the United States, the disease receded until the mid-1980s, when that trend was reversed. Although the TB epidemic in the United States subsided in response to public health interventions, it sparked a controversy regarding the relative value of targeted public health measures vs broad social reform. That controversy, which echoed earlier debates calling for structural reform over public health programs, was further strengthened by the historical and demographic studies of Thomas McKeown. His influential thesis maintains that clinical and primary prevention efforts had little effect on TB mortality. In this paper, the historical literature is used to examine whether public health had a significant impact on the decline of TB mortality rates in several countries. Specifically, the paper describes the arguments for and data affirming the efficacy of 2 major public health interventions over time: segregation of those infected with pulmonary TB and eradication of bovine TB. This review finds support for the hypothesis that public health measures, along with other factors, led to falling rates of TB mortality beginning in the late 19th century.

Policies of containment: immigration in the era of AIDS.

The US Public Health Service began the medical examination of immigrants at US ports in 1891. By 1924, national origin had become a means to justify broad-based exclusion of immigrants after Congress passed legislation restricting immigration from southern and eastern European countries. This legislation was passed based on the alleged genetic inferiority of southern and eastern Europeans. Since 1987, the United States has prohibited the entrance of immigrants infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). On the surface, a policy of excluding individuals with an inevitably fatal "communicable disease of public health significance" rests solidly in the tradition of protecting public health. But excluding immigrants with HIV is also a policy that, in practice, resembles the 1924 tradition of selective racial restriction of immigrants from "dangerous nations." Since the early 1980s, the United States has erected barriers against immigrants from particular Caribbean and African nations, whose citizens were thought to pose a threat of infecting the US blood supply with HIV.

Safety information provided to customers of New York City suntanning salons.

Little is known about the safety information tanning salon operators provide to customers or the extent to which artificial tanning salons adhere to federal regulations designed to protect customers from excessive ultraviolet radiation (UVR) exposure. We surveyed the operators of 20 artificial tanning salons in New York City from 1988 to 1989 concerning salon operating procedures and information provided to potential customers. Results revealed a disparity between known health risks of UVR exposure and safety information provided to tanning salon customers. For example, 75% of salon operators informed potential customers that artificial tanning would not cause a sunburn, and 80% informed potential customers that they would not get skin cancer from artificial tanning. Artificial tanning salons are a rapidly growing industry in the United States, with over two million customers annually. Results from this survey indicate a need for greater regulation of the tanning salon industry and for education of tanning salon operators in the risks associated with the use of artificial tanning devices.