Aggression, Moral Disengagement and Empathy. A Longitudinal Study Within the Interpersonal Dynamics of Bullying.

Moral disengagement and empathy have been linked to aggression in traditional bullying. A number of longitudinal studies have focused on how these variables predict aggressive behavior within the dynamics of bullying. However, no conclusive results have been produced as to whether aggressive behavior in bullying can predict lower levels of empathy, and to date, no studies have explored in depth the mediating role of moral disengagement strategies in this relationship, which is the aim of this study. A total of 1,810 students (51.0% girls; M age = 14.50; SD = 1.05) completed a survey in three waves at 6-month intervals. The results showed that aggressive behavior in bullying at Time 1 was inversely related to affective and cognitive empathy at Time 3. Minimization of responsibility, distortion of consequences and dehumanizing mediated in the aggressive behavior exhibited by the bullying aggressors and in cognitive empathy, while cognitive restructuring and the distortion of consequences mediated in affective empathy. We discuss the impact on moral and emotional sensitivity of the continued aggression occurring in the interpersonal dynamics of bullying, as well as the relationship between certain strategies of moral disengagement and the different types of empathy. We also comment on the need to design intervention programs to address the lowering of moral criteria and empathy in young people and adolescents involved in traditional bullying.

Moral Disengagement Strategies in Online and Offline Bullying / Las estrategias de desconexión moral en el acoso escolar virtual y cara a cara

Bullying and cyberbullying perpetration can involve cognitive processes of moral disengagement; however, there is no clear evidence about which strategies have the greatest influence on this type of behaviour. The aim of this paper was to examine which dimensions of moral disengagement were associated to bullying (off/online) and to explore the effect of gender and age. A total 1,274 students (48.6% girls, aged 11 to 17 years old) from the south of Spain were surveyed (M = 13.63, SD = 1.31). Multivariate multiple regression analyses showed that age and all moral disengagement mechanisms were associated with both offline and online bullying. Univariate regressions revealed that cognitive restructuring was the most strongly associated with both. The interaction between age and cognitive restructuring was only related to offline bullying. Simple slope analyses showed different effects for younger and older classmates at high levels of cognitive restructuring. Specific moral disengagement strategies have special significance for adolescent bullying and cyberbullying perpetration, with cognitive restructuring in particular promoting bullying perpetration in younger students. The results are discussed in relation to practical implications to prevent bullying and cyberbullying. (AU)

La agresión en forma de acoso escolar y ciberacoso implica la activación de procesos cognitivos de desconexión moral, aunque no existe una clara evidencia sobre las estrategias que influyen en mayor medida en este tipo de comportamiento. El objetivo fue examinar qué dimensiones de la desconexión moral se asociaban al acoso escolar (cara a cara/virtual) y explorar los efectos que tienen que ver con el sexo y la edad. Participaron un total de 1,274 estudiantes (48.6% chicas, de edades entre los 11 y 17 años) del sur de España (M = 13.63, DT = 1.31). Los análisis de regresión múltiple mostraron que la edad y todos los mecanismos de desconexión moral se asociaron con acoso escolar virtual y cara a cara; las regresiones univariadas indican que la restructuración cognitiva ha sido la estrategia más asociada. La interacción entre la edad y la restructuración cognitiva solo se ha relacionado con el acoso cara a cara. Los análisis de pendiente simple mostraron diferentes efectos en los más jóvenes y los más mayores cuando el nivel de restructuración cognitiva era alto. Las estrategias específicas de desconexión moral tienen una gran importancia en los comportamientos de agresión en forma de acoso y ciberacoso en los adolescentes, siendo la restructuración cognitiva la que particularmente potencia la agresión en forma de acoso en los alumnos más jóvenes. Se discuten los resultados en relación a sus implicaciones prácticas para prevenir el acoso y el ciberacoso. (AU)

Mechanisms of Moral Disengagement in the Transition from Cybergossip to Cyberaggression: A Longitudinal Study.

The internet is an area where young people establish relationships and develop socially, emotionally and morally, but it also gives rise to certain forms of online behaviour, such as cybergossip, which are associated with cyberaggression and other risky behaviour. The aims of this study were to verify whether a longitudinal association exists between cybergossip and cyberaggression, and to discover which mechanisms of moral disengagement may mediate this relationship. The final sample consisted of 1392 students (50% girls; Mage = 13.47; SD = 0.77), who were surveyed in a three-wave longitudinal study at six-month intervals. The results obtained confirmed a direct, positive relationship between cybergossip, subsequent cyberaggression and the mediation exerted by cognitive restructuring in this transition. We discuss the importance of recognizing and detecting the fine distinction between online gossip and cyberaggression with the intention of doing harm, and focus on the justifications used by young people to normalize online bullying. To sum up, there is a clear need to encourage ethical, responsible behaviour in online interactions in order to achieve well-balanced, more sustainable relationships in classrooms.

Fear of COVID-19, Stress, and Anxiety in University Undergraduate Students: A Predictive Model for Depression.

Depression is a disabling illness which increases the risk of suicide. The Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has led to a rise in fear, anxiety, stress, and depression among the population: of these, university undergraduates from countries severely affected by COVID-19 are some of the most vulnerable of all, as they face strict lockdown measures and have fewer resources to cope with it. The aim of this study was to analyze the levels of fear of COVID-19, stress, anxiety, and depression during lockdown among undergraduates from Ecuador, and to test these possible predictors of depression using a model taken from our study of the scientific literature. A total of 640 undergraduates (72% women) between 18 and 47 years old (M = 21.69; S.D = 4.093) were surveyed. The resulting mean levels found for stress, anxiety, and depression were above levels considered non-pathological. Women showed higher levels of fear of COVID-19 than men. The statistical prediction for depression showed a good fit. This depression could be related: both directly and positively by fear of COVID-19 and stress, and indirectly, as a result of these two factors, positively mediated by anxiety. Our study concludes by highlighting the important role that the complex relationships between fear, stress, and anxiety can play in the development of depression symptoms and how they can be taken into account in programs aimed at preventing and alleviating this disorder. We propose some general measures for reducing fear of COVID-19 and stress and suggest that specific programs be designed to control and overcome anxiety among undergraduates.

How Do You Think the Victims of Bullying Feel? A Study of Moral Emotions in Primary School.

The important role of morality in the transgressive behavior which occurs within peer groups, such as bullying, has often been observed. However, little attention has been paid to this kind of violence in the initial stages of primary education. This study aims to analyze the attribution of moral emotions (self and other) to victims in different bullying types (verbal, physical, relational, and exclusion) and roles (aggressor and victim). An ad hoc questionnaire with supporting stick-figure cartoons was used. In total, 1150 schoolchildren between the ages of 6 and 11 years took part in the study (50.3% girls). The results showed that over 80% of schoolchildren had been involved in any type of aggressive behavior, and that there were significant differences by gender, year, and involvement in self- and other-attributed moral emotions. Aggressors showed less shame in general. In self-attribution situations, there was a greater indifference in aggressors. Victims had less shame and greater indifference in self-attributions for verbal and physical aggression. Girls recognized higher percentages of guilt in victims. The main moral emotion in the first stage was shame. This tendency changed to guilt as the children got older in both situations. Results support the need for the study of moral emotions development of victims and aggressors. How the experience of being involved in bullying biases the moral interpretation toward from the feelings of the victim is discussed.

Los Escolares Diagnosticados con Trastorno del Espectro Autista y Víctimas de Acoso Escolar: una Revisión Sistemática / Students diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder and victims of bullying: A systematic review

Los escolares con trastorno del espectro autista (TEA) presentan dificultades en la interacción y comunicación social y rigidez cognitiva y de ejecución que los hace especialmente vulnerables al bullying; sin embargo, la investigación ha sido menos profusa. El propósito del presente trabajo es revisar y considerar los estudios más recientes sobre TEA y acoso escolar. El método utilizado ha seguido las directrices de la declaración PRISMA. La muestra final la conforman 29 artículos que revelan que estos estudios se han realizado con muestras inferiores a 450 escolares con TEA. Asimismo, se señala que existen discrepancias sobre la comprensión que tienen del acoso y los factores que lo predicen, así como que la prevalencia de bullying es superior a la publicada para los escolares normativos. Los resultados se discuten en comparación con revisiones previas y se plantean nuevos retos para el diseño de programas efectivos de intervención psicoeducativa específicos con este alumnado

School children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) present difficulties in the interaction and social communication and cognitive rigidity and execution that make them especially vulnerable to bullying; however, research has been less profuse. The purpose of this paper is to review and consider the most recent studies on ASD and bullying. The method used has endorsed the PRISMA statement. The final sample is made up of 29 articles that reveal that these studies have been carried out with samples of fewer than 450 students with ASD. Likewise, it is pointed out that there are discrepancies in the understanding of bullying and the factors that predict it and that the prevalence of bullying is higher than the one published for normative schoolchildren. The results are discussed in comparison with previous reviews and new challenges are posed for the design of effective psycho-educational intervention programs specific for these students

Discriminaciones condicionales con estímulos contextuales versus complejos: implicaciones en la transferencia del aprendizaje / Conditional discriminations using contextual versus complex stimuli: implication for learning transfer

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This study sought to determine the effect of two conditional discrimination procedures involving contextual vs complex stimuli, on two types of learning transfer. For this purpose, three experiments were carried out. The first experiment used a contextual control procedure and the second a complex control procedure. The third experiment compared the two procedures using an inter-group design. The first two experiments aimed to determine the effect of the teaching procedure used on the transfer of learning to new stimulus relations (first type of transfer). The third experiment sought to determine the effect of teaching conditional discriminations using wither contextual or complex stimuli on the other discrimination (second type of transfer). In the first experiment, four out of six subjects displayed transfer of learning to new stimulus relations; in the second, only two subjects displayed that transfer. In the third experiment, statistically-significant differences were recorded for the dependent variable: successful attempts in the test using contextual stimuli. The teaching of tasks using contextual stimuli appears to favour the transfer of learning to conditional discriminations involving complex stimuli; the reverse, however, is not true to the same extent. These findings may be useful for the teaching of complex discriminations to intellectually-disabled or autistic children (AU)

Estímulos compuestos, discriminaciones simples y transferencia del aprendizaje en nuevas discriminaciones simples y condicionales / Compound stimuli, simple discriminations and transfer of learning in new discriminations simple and conditional

The purpose of this study is to provide evidence for the transfer of learning to novel discriminations, two conditional (C-A y D-A), four simple (C-RD, D-RC, X1-RB, X2-RB) and one conditional with compound stimuli ((AB)-X). Ten adult subjects participated in the experiment. The training procedure included compound stimuli (visual and auditory) and verbal responses. Participants learned the following stimuli relations: (A1B1)-RC1, (A1B2)-RD1, (A2B1)-RC2, (A2B2)-RD2. In final evaluation, five participants responded correctly to seven discriminations, one participant responded correctly to six, three participants showed accurate responding to five and one to four of the discriminations. The procedure used proved effective in producing transfer of learning to novel discriminations. Results showed statistically significant differences between initial and final evaluations for all the dependent variables. The study shows the transfer of learning to four intraverbals in a research that included compound stimuli (AU)

El propósito de este estudio es proporcionar evidencias de la transferencia del aprendizaje a nuevas discriminaciones, dos condicionales (C-A y D-A), cuatro simples (C-RD, D-RC, X1-RB, X2-RB) y una condicional con estímulos compuestos ((AB)-X). Diez adultos participaron en el experimento. El procedimiento incluyó discriminaciones simples con estímulos compuestos (visuales y auditivos) y respuestas verbales. Los participantes aprendieron las siguientes relaciones de estímulos: (A1B1)-RC1, (A1B2)-RD1, (A2B1)-RC2, (A2B2)-RD2. En evaluación final, cinco participantes respondieron correctamente a las siete discriminaciones, uno respondió correctamente a seis, tres mostraron las respuestas precisas en cinco, y uno en cuatro. El procedimiento utilizado resultó eficaz en la producción de la transferencia del aprendizaje a las nuevas discriminaciones. Los resultados mostraron diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre las evaluaciones inicial y final, para todas las variables dependientes. El estudio muestra la transferencia del aprendizaje a cuatro intraverbales en un experimento que incluye estímulos compuestos (AU)