The Spatial Musical Association of Response Codes does not depend on a normal visual experience: A study with early blind individuals.

Converging evidence suggests that the perception of auditory pitch exhibits a characteristic spatial organization. This pitch-space association can be demonstrated experimentally by the Spatial Musical Association of Response Codes (SMARC) effect. This is characterized by faster response times when a low-positioned key is pressed in response to a low-pitched tone, and a high-positioned key is pressed in response to a high-pitched tone. To investigate whether the development of this pitch-space association is mediated by normal visual experience, we tested a group of early blind individuals on a task that required them to discriminate the timbre of different instrument sounds with varying pitch. Results revealed a comparable pattern in the SMARC effect in both blind participants and sighted controls, suggesting that the lack of prior visual experience does not prevent the development of an association between pitch height and vertical space.

The ego-moving metaphor of time relies on visual experience: No representation of time along the sagittal space in the blind.

In many cultures, humans conceptualize the past as behind the body and the future as in front. Whether this spatial mapping of time depends on visual experience is still not known. Here, we addressed this issue by testing early-blind participants in a space-time motor congruity task requiring them to classify a series of words as referring to the past or the future by moving their hand backward or forward. Sighted participants showed a preferential mapping between forward movements and future-words and backward movements and past-words. Critically, blind participants did not show any such preferential time-space mapping. Furthermore, in a questionnaire requiring participants to think about past and future events, blind participants did not appear to perceive the future as psychologically closer than the past, as it is the case of sighted individuals. These findings suggest that normal visual development is crucial for representing time along the sagittal space. (PsycINFO Database Record

The effect of hand movements on numerical bisection judgments in early blind and sighted individuals.

Recent evidence suggests that in representing numbers blind individuals might be affected differently by proprioceptive cues (e.g., hand positions, head turns) than are sighted individuals. In this study, we asked a group of early blind and sighted individuals to perform a numerical bisection task while executing hand movements in left or right peripersonal space and with either hand. We found that in bisecting ascending numerical intervals, the hemi-space in which the hand was moved (but not the moved hand itself) influenced the bisection bias similarly in both early blind and sighted participants. However, when numerical intervals were presented in descending order, the moved hand (and not the hemi-space in which it was moved) affected the bisection bias in all participants. Overall, our data show that the operation to be performed on the mental number line affects the activated spatial reference frame, regardless of participants' previous visual experience. In particular, both sighted and early blind individuals' representation of numerical magnitude is mainly rooted in world-centered coordinates when numerical information is given in canonical orientation (i.e., from small to large), whereas hand-centered coordinates become more relevant when the scanning of the mental number line proceeds in non-canonical direction.

Spatial representations in blind people: the role of strategies and mobility skills.

The role of vision in the construction of spatial representations has been the object of numerous studies and heated debate. The core question of whether visual experience is necessary to form spatial representations has found different, often contradictory answers. The present paper examines mental images generated from verbal descriptions of spatial environments. Previous evidence had shown that blind individuals have difficulty remembering information about spatial environments. By testing a group of congenitally blind people, we replicated this result and found that it is also present when the overall mental model of the environment is assessed. This was not always the case, however, but appeared to correlate with some blind participants' lower use of a mental imagery strategy and preference for a verbal rehearsal strategy, which was adopted particularly by blind people with more limited mobility skills. The more independent blind people who used a mental imagery strategy performed as well as sighted participants, suggesting that the difficulty blind people may have in processing spatial descriptions is not due to the absence of vision per se, but could be the consequence of both, their using less efficient verbal strategies and having poor mobility skills.

The effect of vertical and horizontal symmetry on memory for tactile patterns in late blind individuals.

Visual stimuli that exhibit vertical symmetry are easier to remember than stimuli symmetric along other axes, an advantage that extends to the haptic modality as well. Critically, the vertical symmetry memory advantage has not been found in early blind individuals, despite their overall superior memory, as compared with sighted individuals, and the presence of an overall advantage for identifying symmetric over asymmetric patterns. The absence of the vertical axis memory advantage in the early blind may depend on their total lack of visual experience or on the effect of prolonged visual deprivation. To disentangle this issue, in this study, we measured the ability of late blind individuals to remember tactile spatial patterns that were either vertically or horizontally symmetric or asymmetric. Late blind participants showed better memory performance for symmetric patterns. An additional advantage for the vertical axis of symmetry over the horizontal one was reported, but only for patterns presented in the frontal plane. In the horizontal plane, no difference was observed between vertical and horizontal symmetric patterns, due to the latter being recalled particularly well. These results are discussed in terms of the influence of the spatial reference frame adopted during exploration. Overall, our data suggest that prior visual experience is sufficient to drive the vertical symmetry memory advantage, at least when an external reference frame based on geocentric cues (i.e., gravity) is adopted.

Listening to numbers affects visual and haptic bisection in healthy individuals and neglect patients.

There is evidence that humans represent numbers in the form of a mental number line (MNL). Here we show that the MNL modulates the representation of visual and haptic space both in healthy individuals and right-brain-damaged patients, both with and without left unilateral spatial neglect (USN). Participants were asked to estimate the midpoint of visually or haptically explored rods while listening to task-irrelevant stimuli: a small digit ("2"), a large digit ("8"), or a non-numerical auditory stimulus ("blah"). In a control silent condition, the bisection error of USN patients was biased rightwards (namely, the marker of USN) only in the visual modality. Regardless of the direction of the bisection error committed in silent trials, listening to the small digit shifted the perceived midline leftwards, and listening to the large digit shifted the perceived midline rightwards, compared to a control condition in which a neutral syllable ("blah") was presented. The shift induced by listening to numbers occurred independently of the modality of response (i.e., both in vision and haptics), and in every group of participants. Interestingly, the effect of auditory numbers processing on space estimation was overall larger for haptically than for visually explored space in all participants. In conclusion, the present data show that listening to irrelevant numbers affects space perception also in patients with left USN, indicating that the spatial representation and attention processes disrupted by USN are not involved in these numerical magnitude-spatial effects.

Spatial biases in peripersonal space in sighted and blind individuals revealed by a haptic line bisection paradigm.

Our representation of peripersonal space does not always accurately reflect the physical world. An example of this is pseudoneglect, a phenomenon in which neurologically normal individuals bisect to the left of the veridical midpoint, reflecting an overrepresentation of the left portion of space compared with the right one. Consistent biases have also been observed in the vertical and radial planes. It is an open question whether these biases depend on normal visual experience for their occurrence. Here we systematically investigated this issue by testing blindfolded sighted and early blind individuals in a haptic line bisection task. Critically, we found a robust leftward bias in all participants. In the vertical and radial planes, sighted participants showed a consistent downward and proximal bias. Conversely, the directional bias in blind participants was dependent on the final movement direction; thus, there was no general bias in either direction. These findings are discussed in terms of different reference frames adopted by sighted and blind participants when encoding space.

Blind individuals show pseudoneglect in bisecting numerical intervals.

Neurologically normal individuals typically show a leftward bias--known as pseudoneglect--in bisecting physical lines as well as numerical intervals. The latter bias may reflect the spatial nature in which numbers are represented (i.e., the mental number line). In previous studies, we found that congenitally blind individuals show such leftward bias in haptic bisection. Here, we demonstrate that blind individuals also show a consistent leftward bias in numerical bisection. The leftward bias was greater when numbers were presented in descending rather than ascending order, and the magnitude of the leftward bias was comparable to that shown by a control group of blindfolded sighted participants. Our findings thus support the view that pseudoneglect operates at a mental representational level rather than being perceptually based. Moreover, the consistent leftward bias shown by blind individuals in both line and numerical bisection suggests that the right hemisphere dominance in spatial processing, resulting in an overestimation of the left side of space, develops even in the absence of any visual input.

Tapping effects on numerical bisection.

Numerical magnitude is believed to be represented along a mental number line (MNL), and there is evidence to suggest that the activation of the MNL affects the perception and representation of external space. In the present study, we investigated whether a spatial motor task affects numerical processing in the auditory modality. Blindfolded participants were presented with a numerical interval bisection task, while performing a tapping task with either their left or right hand, either in the fronto-central, fronto-left, or fronto-right peripersonal space. Results showed that tapping significantly influenced the participants' numerical bisection, with tapping in the left side of space increasing the original tendency to err leftward, and tapping to the right reducing such bias. Importantly, the effect depended on the side of space in which the tapping activity was performed, regardless of which hand was used. Tapping with either the left or right hand in the fronto-central space did not affect the participants' bias. These findings offer novel support for the existence of bidirectional interactions between external and internal representations of space.

Crossmodal interaction between the mental number line and peripersonal haptic space representation in sighted and blind individuals.

Humans tend to represent numbers in the form of a mental number line. Here we show that the mental number line can modulate the representation of peripersonal haptic space in a crossmodal fashion and that this interaction is not visually mediated. Sighted and early-blind participants were asked to haptically explore rods of different lengths and to indicate midpoints of those rods. During each trial, either a small (2) or a large (8) number was presented in the auditory modality. When no numbers were presented, participants tended to bisect the rods to the left of the actual midpoint, consistent with the notion of pseudoneglect. In both groups, this bias was significantly increased by the presentation of a small number and was significantly reduced by the presentation of a large number. Hence, spatial shifts of attention induced by number processing are not limited to visual space or embodied responses but extend to haptic peripersonal space and occur crossmodally without requiring the activation of a visuospatial representation.

Symmetry perception in the blind.

Bilateral mirror symmetry, especially vertical symmetry, is a powerful phenomenon in spatial organization of visual shapes. However, the causes of vertical symmetry salience in visual perception are not completely clear. Here we investigated whether the perceptual salience of vertical symmetry depends on visual experience by testing a group of congenitally blind individuals in a memory task in which either horizontal or vertical symmetry was used as an incidental feature. Both blind and sighted subjects remembered more accurately configurations that were symmetrical compared to those that were not. Critically, whereas sighted subjects displayed a higher level of facilitation by vertical than horizontal symmetry, no such difference was found in the blind. This suggests that the perceptual salience of the vertical dimension is visually based.