Prevalence and effects of child exposure to domestic violence.

In recent years, researchers have focused attention on children who are exposed to domestic violence. Although presently there are no scientifically credible estimates of the national prevalence of children exposed to domestic violence, existing data suggest that large numbers of American children are affected. This article discusses the limitations of current databases and describes a promising model for the collection of reliable and valid prevalence data, the Spousal Assault Replication Program, which uses data collected through collaboration between police and university researchers. Research examining the effects of childhood exposure to domestic violence is also limited by a range of methodological problems. Despite this, however, sufficient evidence from the body of studies exists to conclude that such exposure has adverse effects. The specific effects may differ depending on a host of variables, such as the children's ages, the nature and severity of the violence, the existence of other risk factors in the children's lives (for example, poverty, parental substance abuse), and whether the children are also directly physically abused. In general, childhood exposure to domestic violence can be associated with increased display of aggressive behavior, increased emotional problems such as depression and/or anxiety, lower levels of social competence, and poorer academic functioning. A scientifically credible body of research on the prevalence and effects of childhood exposure to domestic violence is necessary to promote the development of effective interventions and to permit the proper channeling of public and private funds. This article identifies some of the steps that can be taken to build the research capacity necessary to obtain the needed data.

A contextually relevant assessment of the impact of child maltreatment on the social competencies of low-income urban children.

OBJECTIVE: A developmental-ecological model was used to explore the psychological adjustment and peer social competencies of maltreated preschool children. METHOD: Enhanced research methods were used that included verification of maltreatment status, multiple-variable matching of comparison children, and contextually relevant assessment. One hundred eight Head Start children, of whom 54 were maltreated, participated. Assessment of social functioning included measurement of peer play interactions, global social skills, peer sociometrics, and teacher and parent ratings of behavior problems. RESULTS: Findings indicated that maltreated children were significantly less interactive in peer play and overall exhibited less self-control and interpersonal skill in social interactions than nonmaltreated children. In addition, maltreated children were more likely than their nonmaltreated peers to receive low sociometric ratings and were found by both teachers and parents to display more internalizing behavior problems than comparison children. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate the importance of using developmentally sensitive research methods to inform contextually relevant interventions.

The challenge of creating thoughtful research agendas.

This article is an affirmative rejoinder to a recent editorial calling for revitalizing psychiatric research and education. It reviews the shortcomings of our present knowledge- and research-base using the state of child psychiatry as an exemplar. It concludes that we, as a specialty, must be cautious in setting a course for a research agenda in the new millenium and posits that the most informative research and intervention will occur by using multiple measures and sources of information. As understanding of patients and their problems in development and in context grows, intervention research that will be useful, timely, and cost-effective must include cross-discipline teams of researchers and practitioners who will speak to these complexities.

The Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance: does it work with low-income urban children?

The present study represents a twofold investigation wherein (a) the construct validity of the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance for Young Children (PSPCSA) and (b) the developmental appropriateness of the PSPCSA were empirically examined for urban Head Start children. Data were collected from a sample of 476 African-American children (48-64 months) representing children enrolled in a large metropolitan Head Start program. In the first study, neither replication of the test author's statistical procedures nor a series of exploratory factor analyses produced psychologically meaningful constructs. A second study tested the assumption that the PSPCSA administration format is developmentally appropriate for preschool children. Results from this study did not support the assumption that the PSPCSA is developmentally appropriate for preschool children. Implications for establishing valid assessment methods for urban Head Start children were discussed.

Effects of interparental violence on the psychological adjustment and competencies of young children.

Preschool children (N = 107) were divided into 4 groups on the basis of maternal report; home and shelter groups exposed to verbal and physical conflict, a home group exposed to verbal conflict only, and a home control group. Parental ratings of behavior problems and competencies and children's self-report data were collected. Results show that verbal conflict only was associated with a moderate level of conduct problems: verbal plus physical conflict was associated with clinical levels of conduct problems and moderate levels of emotional problems; and verbal plus physical conflict plus shelter residence was associated with clinical levels of conduct problems, higher level of emotional problems, and lower levels of social functioning and perceived maternal acceptance. Findings suggests a direct relationship between the nature of the conflict and residence and type and extent of adjustment problems.

Behavioral treatment of the victims of child abuse and neglect.

Although there is a little debate that victims of child abuse and neglect suffer ill effect, scientifically validated, behavioral treatment of child victims is virtually nonexistent. This article examines three pertinent facets of the child-maltreatment knowledge base: (a) national child abuse and neglect reporting, (b) empirical investigations of the psychological effects of maltreatment, and (c) a small number of treatment outcome studies. Based on this review, guidelines are presented to promote the development of practical, treatment outcome investigations that adequately reflect existing data about child victims and their life circumstances and that are responsive to their specific needs and available resources.

The effects of peer social initiations on the social behavior of withdrawn maltreated preschool children.

The present study evaluated the treatment and generalization effects of implementing a peer social initiation intervention with four severely withdrawn maltreated preschool children. Positive social response and initiation data were collected across the treatment (a playroom) and the natural classroom setting. A reversal design superimposed on a multiple baseline was used to evaluate the effectiveness. The results indicated increases in positive social responses and initiations across treatment and generalization settings. Follow-up data for two children indicated time and setting-time generalization effects. Teacher reports validated treatment gains.

Treatment of severe self-injurious behavior by the mentally retarded using the bubble helmet and differential reinforcement procedures.

We examined the effectiveness of a bubble helmet and differential reinforcement procedures in the treatment of the self-injurious behavior (SIB) of three adult residents of a state hospital for the developmentally disabled. A multiple-baseline design across settings and an ABC design were used to assess the effectiveness of these procedures. Results indicated that the introduction of the bubble helmet in conjunction with differential reinforcement procedures produced notable reductions in SIB for all three participants. These reductions were significantly greater than those produced by using the differential reinforcement procedures alone. Social validity, generalization and follow-up data further documented the efficacy and acceptability of the bubble helmet plus differential reinforcement procedures. The advantages of the bubble helmet over other forms of restraint and the theoretical implications of these findings are also discussed.

Parent and social-skills training for mentally retarded mothers identified as child maltreaters.

The effectiveness and generality of a parent- and social-skills training program for three mildly retarded mothers identified as child maltreaters were investigated. The program was conducted by one trainer in a community-based facility and included the following components: individualized performance standards, response-specific feedback, self-monitoring, and group rewards. A multiple-baseline design across parenting- and social-skill areas was used to evaluate the training. The findings revealed that the game contingencies effectively increased the mothers' ability to identify the most effective action to take in common problematic parenting and social situations. Generalization and recidivism data supported the efficacy of treatment gains.

The effects of reciprocal peer tutoring and group contingencies on the academic performance of elementary school children.

We evaluated the effects of reciprocal peer tutoring combined with group reinforcement contingencies on the arithmetic performance of 12 underachieving fifth-grade students. Results indicated that the intervention increased the students' arithmetic performance to a level indistinguishable from their classmates during treatment and 12-week follow-up phases. Pre-, post-, and follow-up sociometric data indicated that the students who participated in the treatment groups increased their amount of peer affiliation with other treatment group members.

The generality and social validity of a competency-based self-control training intervention for underachieving students.

We evaluated the effectiveness, generality, and social validity of a modified version of a competency-based self-control package developed by Stevenson and Fantuzzo (1984). Three underachieving fifth-grade students were trained to use this intervention to increase their arithmetic proficiency. Results indicated that the intervention produced improved arithmetic performance. Moreover, all possible classes of generalization were evidenced for the participants. Social validity data showed that the children's arithmetic performance either surpassed or approached the mean performance of their higher achieving classmates. Additionally, teachers reported that the intervention was effective, appropriate for classroom use, and easy to implement.

Competency mandate: a model for teaching skills in the administration of the WAIS-R.

The Standards for Educational and Psychological Tests as well as other official policy statements of the American Psychological Association call for competent assessment skills. However, a thorough review of the literature evidences only a handful of models that transmit these mandates into practice. The MASTERY model, a competency-based training procedure, was employed in this investigation as a cost-effective means of actualizing these professional standards. This systematic procedure brought 31 graduate students in clinical psychology to criterion level for competent administration of the WAIS-R after less than 10 hours and two administrations. Practical and research implications of this training model for clinical psychology were discussed.

Contingent application of a protective device to treat the severe self-biting behavior of a disturbed autistic child.

This study introduces the Bubble Helmet, a protective device, as an effective means of treating severe cases of self-biting behavior with disturbed developmentally disabled persons. The apparatus is a clear plastic sphere which fastens over the client's head, shielding the mouth from contact with hands and forearms. Use of the bubble in a response-contingent manner effectively eliminated the intense self-biting behavior of a 9-year-old autistic child in a community-based group home. This made it possible for her to be placed in a less restrictive community facility.

Application of the "generalization map" to a self-control intervention with school-aged children.

The assessment of generalization has become a priority of applied behavior analysis. This study provided a thorough assessment of the generality of a comprehensive self-control intervention. This intervention incorporated a number of self-management skills and was designed to increase the math performance of an underachieving student in a regular elementary school classroom. All possible classes of generalization as outlined by Drabman, Hammer, and Rosenbaum (1979) were assessed. An ABAB design with follow-up was used to determine the effectiveness of the intervention for the treated student's math performance in the school setting as well as the degree of generalization across the following untreated dimensions: behavior (disruptiveness); setting (home); subject (classmate); and time period (follow-up). The effective intervention produced: subject, behavior, subject-behavior, setting, subject-setting, behavior-setting, subject-behavior-setting, time, subject-time, setting-time, subject-setting-time, and subject-behavior-setting-time generalization. Generalization was not obtained for behavior-time, subject-behavior-time, and behavior-setting-time generalization. Features of this intervention which may have promoted generalization are discussed.

Generalization of the effects of teacher- and self-administered token reinforcers to nontreated students.

Ten, black, second-grade boys served in a series of single-subject studies. They were from poor families, did not do well in arithmetic, were deficient in sustained attention, and presented behavior problems at school. One boy was a therapeutic confederate. Of the remaining nine nontreated students, three observed the confederate reinforced by a teacher, three observed the confederate self-reinforce without having an opportunity to use "self-reinforcement" themselves, and three observed self-reinforcement while having an opportunity to use "self-reinforcement." The target behavior was attending. Other measures of outcome were glancing, academic achievement, and accuracy of reinforcement. The basic experimental design consisted of an ABAB withdrawal applied to the confederate while the nontreated students remained on baseline. Generalization was expressed as a ratio (i.e., percent change in the generalization measure divided by percent change in the target behavior). Teacher-administered reinforcers to the confederate did not produce generalization of any kind. Both arrangements of self-administered reinforcers to the confederate produced across-subjects generalization and subject-response generalization. Additionally, the confederate manifested response generalization.